tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-303440662024-03-28T16:28:39.543+09:00MeditationsFinance & Economics, Economic Development, Philosophy, Sports, Music, Reading, News from Tokyo, etc.Taejunhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08721720381259486607noreply@blogger.comBlogger74125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-30344066.post-33369776312751865172013-02-07T19:48:00.001+09:002013-02-07T19:48:15.923+09:004th book<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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My 4th book (in Japanese) will be published in ten days, but it's the first book in that it focuses on myself - about my lifestyle.<br />
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It was really painful experience to talk about myself. Reading drafts, some guys of my NPO said to me: "oh TJ, the book seems to be a bit arrogant, and I don't like it", although I was extremely careful about abolishing self-consciousness in the book. I resisted 100 temptations to say "shut up. then you do it" (actually I couldn't swallow all of them, haha).<br />
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To be honest, I'm not sure if I want to publish the book. Whenever I author a book, I wonder whether my future kids would proud of it. If the answer is no, I don't write it, although the book could be a good promotional opportunity for my NPO or my business.<br />
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I know it is no use crying over spilled milk. I just would wait judgment of the readers.<br />
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Taejunhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08721720381259486607noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-30344066.post-87439187103241950752013-01-10T23:45:00.003+09:002013-01-10T23:55:47.836+09:00Hold tightly<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span class="s1">When</span> I was a boy, I sometimes hold precious things (at that time they were mainly toys or insects) so tightly that they were broken or squashed. Even after I got old, from time to time I did the same, although the broken were not toys anymore, but relationships with my significant others. </div>
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I think it's not only me who experienced such bitter events; some of my friends went through unwanted breakup because they love their steadies too much. Having experienced agonies, one of my friends said to me, " the most important thing in relationship building is to keep the <i>appropriate</i> distance. If the distance gets too close or too far, something would go wrong. " "Preaching truth after storm is very easy.", I said to her. </div>
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Occasionally, I am reminded of what I did wrong and regret them, even knowing that regretting something means and creates nothing. However, at the same time, I cherish those memories, as they were the very vivid proof of my life, in which I tried to do the best as an imperfect man. A good thing is that memory would never be broken down but even tell me more, when I hold it tightly. </div>
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Taejunhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08721720381259486607noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-30344066.post-68194108983674431182013-01-02T11:16:00.003+09:002013-01-02T11:16:54.181+09:002012 review & 2013 objectives<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'lucida grande', tahoma, verdana, arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13.333333015441895px; line-height: 18px;">3 years ago I started to write about 2012 review and 2013 objectives and share it with my friends. One purpose is purely greeting, and another is to make an oath, which always drives me to achieve my goal. </span><br style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'lucida grande', tahoma, verdana, arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13.333333015441895px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'lucida grande', tahoma, verdana, arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13.333333015441895px; line-height: 18px;" /><b><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'lucida grande', tahoma, verdana, arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13.333333015441895px; line-height: 18px;">1. Professional life</span></b><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'lucida grande', tahoma, verdana, arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13.333333015441895px; line-height: 18px;">Led two big deals about LBO financing and exit (selling shares of a portfolio company). Having gone through those deals, I now became more confident in what I can do as an</span><span class="text_exposed_show" style="background-color: white; color: #333333; display: inline; font-family: 'lucida grande', tahoma, verdana, arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13.333333015441895px; line-height: 18px;"> investment professional.<br /><br />I will start something new next year. While I stay in the current firm, I would like to achieve the followings:<br />- Learn more about fund administration; study how the investment scheme works<br />- Never prepare “draft“ works; prepare them as the final version<br />- Make progress in writing charts: create “chart notebook” and hand-write more than 100 great charts I encounter through work and study<br /><br /><b>2. NPO life</b>Three key achievements of 2012 are as follows:<br />- Living in Peace (LIP) became a “registered” non-profit organization. Donations for registered NPOs are all tax deductible and it will be of help to accelerate fund raising<br />- Cumulative invested capital for“LIP Microfinance Fund (investment fund for microfinance institutions around the world)” reached +$1 million<br />- Doubled the donors for “Chance Maker”, a fund raising program for foster homes in Japan. Thanks to support from donors, we initiated construction of new foster homes, to be completed by the end of 2013. The kids are all excited.<br /><br />In 2013, I would strengthen board of directors meetings (currently they are not working perfectly), launch new investment projects, and make a breakthrough in fund raising. I also would augment my presentation skill, by putting more time on practice.<br /><br /><b>3. Learning</b>I read more than 200 books and academic papers regarding innovation (main purpose is to author a book about the topic). After reading these materials, I noticed that the concepts on innovation, such as abduction, tacit knowledge, dialectic, design thinking, story, etc., are all connected and is meaning essentially the same.<br /><br />This year, I also tried to read the most cited books according to Google Scholar and wrote English blog every week. Due to some schedule conflicts with my professional job and book writing, I could read only 34 books. I couldn’t achieve the original goals, but the experience was amazing. Now I can see the world from broader perspectives than I could a year ago.<br /><br />Best books of 2012: “Poor Economics (Banerjee & Duflo)”, “Science and Methodology (Poincare)”, “Tacit Dimension (Polanyi)”, “Making Democracy Work (Pugnam)”, “Mind in Society (Vygotsky)”, “The Logic of Scientific Discovery (Popper)”.<br /><br />In 2012, I learned from the other opportunities as well. This year I attended St. Gallen Symposium in Switzerland and Summer Davos in China. The best thing I learned from these events is that there are great people in my generation doing cool things to really change the world. They gave me motivation and inspirations more than great business and political leaders in the world. I also realized that I need to make a quantum progress in my English.<br /><br />Next year’s key targets are:<br />- Read books about finance, governance & management and emerging countries: more exactly, the books about industrial organizations, game theory, history of governance, asset pricing, etc.<br />- Continue a study group to read and discuss articles of the Economist magazine every Sunday morning<br />- Post +100 English blog entries<br />- Learn +2000 new English words<br /><br /><b>4. Authoring </b>“Social Finance Revolution”, my third book, was published in July. The book is about how social network influences the future of finance. I also wrote drafts of three books, which will be published early next year.<br /><br />Next year, I will write book(s) about asset pricing and corporate governance. The purpose is to summarize what I have learned so far through my study and professional career.<br /><br /><b>5. Other activities</b>Due to schedule conflict, I could enter only two races. One is long-distance triathlon (3.8 km swimming, 190 bicycle, and 42.2 km running), and another is 100km ultra marathon. In May 2012, I will have a 6-days ultra-marathon competition, in which I’ll run 520km in total.<br /><br />I could perform drums in a live session as scheduled. The problem is that I wasn’t well prepared, and I think I need to make time for practice.<br /><br /><b>6. Behavior</b><br />I think I need to change some of my behaviors to start new things. Although they may sound childish, the reality is that I couldn’t overcome them in 30 years. I’ll make a check list and fill it everyday when writing my diary:<br />- Be in time. Be the place 10 minutes before the appointment (and study new English words while waiting) and prepare works 24 hours before the deadline.<br />- Handwrite thank you letters for everyone whom I appreciate<br />- Concentrate on one thing at one time<br />- Ameliorate posture. It influences state of mind<br />- Make 10 minutes for silent reflection.</span></div>
Taejunhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08721720381259486607noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-30344066.post-72545163807266267272012-12-09T13:54:00.002+09:002012-12-09T14:42:08.207+09:00Adopted CEO<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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More companies in Europe and Asia are family-owned. Among them, performance of Japanese family-owned corporations shows higher performance than the others. </div>
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How the Japanese corporations avoid the common fall-down of dynastic corporations? The Economist in <a href="http://www.economist.com/news/asia/21567419-family-firms-adopt-unusual-approach-remain-competitive-keeping-it-family" target="_blank">the last week's issue</a> proposed an interesting hypothesis: custom of adult-adoption keeps their successfulness. Adult adoption is more common in Japan: out of 81,000 adoption made in 2011, 90% of them were adult adoption. </div>
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At a glance, the argument may seem absurd, but spending some time for contemplating on it, I now think the argument may be plausible due to three reasons: </div>
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First, the adult-adoption works as a strong commitment mechanism. Usually, when we come up with commitment mechanism of ordinary corporations, we use stock options. Stock option works well to some extent, but influence on manager's incentives will be far stronger in adoption. It easy to imagine the reason: if you have no way to escape around, you would spend much more to make the company successful. </div>
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Second, the custom may contribute to hire better qualified CEOs. Recruiting a right CEO is always difficult and time-consuming. The adult adoption mechanism helps corporations to take more time to find out the right person.</div>
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Third, adopted CEOs are fresh-minded outsiders and can bring about turn-around if needed. According to some studies, outsider CEOs are more successful when they are in corporations which are not performing well and need changes. </div>
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Taejunhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08721720381259486607noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-30344066.post-14660127310817089732012-12-06T19:10:00.001+09:002012-12-06T19:21:30.745+09:00Verbalize motive<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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When I make a presentation, the most typical question I get from the audience is : why you do this? It is the hardest one to answer.<br />
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Whenever I start something new, the honest reason I can currently tell is "my whole body asks me to do it". Quite simple, but assuming that most of the people would be puzzled by this answer, I try to come up with an easy story, quoting my life experience. This easy story, however, won't convince me throughly, and I feel a bit guilty.<br />
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Sometimes I think about why explanation of one's motivation is that difficult. Perhaps one potential reason is that one's motivation is a complex mixture of various experiences one had in her/his life. One's motivation may only be understood as a whole, and explaining each motivation-shaping factor may drop something very crucial. If that is the case, to explain one's real motive would be a brain teaser.<br />
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Difficulty of verbalizing one's motivation does not mean that we ought to skip the question of "why you do this?". I believe only by throughly examining one's own reason, he / she can understand him/herself more profoundly and can make his /her discipline more solid.<br />
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Not to end the self-search journey, one should not deceive oneself by the easy story. Once I stop pursuing the goal, I won't be able to see the vast story inside your mind, and that is regrettable to me. It's more challenging than we usually think, but we can try.<br />
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Taejunhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08721720381259486607noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-30344066.post-38810754451046189242012-11-28T21:46:00.001+09:002012-11-28T21:46:27.036+09:00Distinction<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">It
seems that major modern philosophers at 70s and 80s had a same issue </span><span style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">–<span lang="EN-US"> social contexts of
something dominant, e.g. Foucault talked about social context of prison and
punishment, and so did Said about social context of orientalism. Pierre
Bourdieu did the same in his book </span>“<span lang="EN-US">Distinction </span>–<span lang="EN-US"> A Social Critique of the Judgement of Taste</span>”<span lang="EN-US">. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Bourdieu
argues that even our judgment of taste is not free from social context. We
think we know what is culturally noble, but it is just the reflection of power
of social classes, according to Bourdieu. He reckons that the definition of
cultural nobility is the product of a struggle between groups differing in
their ideas of culture and of the legitimate relation to culture and to works
of art. In his definition, social class is more than the </span><span style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">“<span lang="EN-US">class</span>”<span lang="EN-US"> that Marx mentioned long before. The classes are defined based on
education, origin of birth, jobs, income, social status, etc. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">The
logic is understandable. All social classes follow their incentive structures,
and try to glorify cultures which are close to them. For instance, aristocrats in
Japan may want to emphasize the ascendancy of traditional arts, because in this
way they can keep their cultural dominance in the society. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">What
is interesting in his argument is that he gathered as many data as possible to
prove his idea. For example, Bourdieu made survey to see how the cultural
preferences differ among social class and made </span><span style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">“<span lang="EN-US">preference distribution</span>”<span lang="EN-US"> of cultural products. According to this distribution, </span>“<span lang="EN-US">Well-Tempered Clavier</span>”<span lang="EN-US"> is less popular among
manual workers, domestic servants, shopkeepers, and the other people with
low-paying jobs (approx. less than 3% of people preferred), but more popular
among secondary teachers and higher-education teachers (more than 30%). His book is full of this kind of facts showing
certain relationship between social class and tastes. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Artists
may disagree with the idea. However, even though the pure intention of artists
is that of a producer who aims to be autonomous, they are following the old
hierarchy of doing and saying </span><span style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">–<span lang="EN-US"> the interpretations superimposed a posteriori on his work. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Remark<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">The
concept that Bourdieu argued doesn</span><span style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">’<span lang="EN-US">t sound new, but what is conspicuous in his work is the solid facts
to prove his argument. His works show that even sociological argument can be proved
through facts and numbers, and tell us that we should not abandon ourselves to
despair that somewhat vague concepts cannot be measured. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Reference<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Pierre
Bourdieu, </span><span style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">“<span lang="EN-US">Distinction:
A Social Critique of the Judgement of Taste</span>”<span lang="EN-US">, Harvard
University Press; Reprint edition, 1987/10/15<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<!--EndFragment--></div>
Taejunhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08721720381259486607noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-30344066.post-51436895055919763072012-10-21T17:47:00.001+09:002012-10-21T17:49:07.398+09:00The Logic of Scientific Discovery<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Opposing
to inductive logic as the methodology of science, Karl Popper proposes the
theory of the deductive method of testing. In his book </span><span lang="EN-US">“</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">The Logic of Scientific Discovery</span><span lang="EN-US">”</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">, he argues that scientific hypothesis should be empirically
tested and falsified in cases. It is easy to test the validity of a chain of
logical reasoning. Just break it up into many small steps, each easy to check
by anybody who has learnt the mathematical or logical technique of transforming
sentences. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Falsifiability as essence
of science<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Popper
argues that what distinguishes the empirical science from pseudo-science is
that the former theory intrinsically falsifiability. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">“<span lang="EN-US">I shall certainly admit a system as empirical or scientific only if
it is capable of being tested by experience. These considerations suggest that
not the verifiability but the falsifiability of a system is to be taken as a
criterion of demarcation. In other words: I shall not require of a scientific
system that it shall be capable of being singled out, once and for all, in a
positive sense; but I shall require that its logical form shall be such that it
can be singled out, by means of empirical tests, in a negative sense: it must
be possible for an empirical scientific system to be refuted by experience.</span>”<span lang="EN-US">(18)<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">The
reason why he emphasizes falsifiability, not verifiability, is that it is not
possible to prove something in empirical science. Through the history, every
scientific theory has been denied by the new facts and then updated. Popper
took a radical example to explain his idea: </span><span lang="EN-US">“</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Let us suppose that the sun will not rise tomorrow. Should
such a thing occur, science would have to try to explain it, i.e. to derive it
from laws. Existing theories would not merely have to account for the new state
of affairs: our older experiences would also have to be derivable from them. </span><span lang="EN-US">“</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">(250)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Granted,
the best thing is that we can just jump into immortal truth, but that will not
come true forever. That is why human beings have taken paths that seem to be
beating around the bush. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Probability of hypothesis
and probability of events<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Popper
also strictly differentiates probability of hypothesis from probability of
events. He argues that probability of hypothesis should not exist in science,
although probability of events do and contribute for testing the validity of
hypothesis. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Hypotheses
regarding probabilities are not verifiable because they are universal
statements, and they are not strictly falsifiable because they can never be
logically contradicted by any basic statements. (259) I believe that physics
uses probability statements only in the way which I have discussed at length in
connection with the theory of probability; and more particularly that I uses
probability assumptions, just like other hypotheses, as falsifiable statements.
(260)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Science in evolutionary
process<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Popper
believes that the essence of science is its falsifiability and thus its
evolutionary process which lasts forever. One driving force of the evolution is
craving for the truth, although the goal will never be attained. Another
driving force is one</span><span lang="EN-US">’</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">s intuition:
although new facts have always transformed science, those facts do not come to
those who passively experience it; it comes to someone who believes in his/her
anticipation, idea, speculative thought and so on. In other words, the facts
that change the world are visible to only those who want to do it.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">“</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Science is not
a system of certain, or well-established, statements; nor is it a system which
steadily advances towards a state of finality. Our science is not knowledge
(episteme): it can never claim to have attained truth, or even a substitute for
it, such as probability. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";"> Yet science has more than mere biological
survival value. Although it can attain neither truth nor probability, the
striving for knowledge and the search for truth are still the strongest motives
of scientific discovery. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";"> Marvelously imaginative and bold conjectures
or </span><span lang="EN-US">“</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">anticipations</span><span lang="EN-US">”</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";"> of ours are carefully
and soberly controlled by systematic tests. Once put forward, none of our </span><span lang="EN-US">“</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">anticipations</span><span lang="EN-US">”</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";"> are dogmatically upheld.
Our method of research is not to defend them, in order to prove how right we
were. On the contrary, we try to overthrow them. Using all the weapons of our
logical, mathematical, and technical armoury, we try to prove that our anticipations
were false </span><span lang="EN-US">–</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";"> in order to
put forward, in their stead, new unjustified and unjustifiable anticipations,
new </span><span lang="EN-US">“</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">rash and premature
prejudices</span><span lang="EN-US">”</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">, as Bacon
derisively called them.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">The
advance of science is not due to the fact that more and more perceptual
experiences accumulate in the course of time. Nor is it due to the fact that we
are making ever better use of our senses. Out of uninterpreted
sense-experiences science cannot be distilled, no matter how industriously we
gather and sort them. <u>Bold ideas, unjustified anticipations, and speculative
thought, are our only mans for interpreting nature: our only organon, our only
instrument, for grasping her. </u><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">The
old scientific ideal of episteme </span><span lang="EN-US">–</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";"> of absolutely
certain, demonstrable knowledge- has proved to be an idol. The demand for
scientific objectivity makes it inevitable that every scientific statement must
remain tentative for ever. It may indeed be corroborated, but every
corroboration is relative to other statements which, again, are tentative. <u>Only
in our subjective experiences of conviction, in our subjective faith, can we be
</u></span><u><span lang="EN-US">“</span></u><u><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">absolutely
certain</span></u><u><span lang="EN-US">”</span></u><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">. (Page 278 </span><span lang="EN-US">–</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";"> 280)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Remarks<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">The
idea proposed in this book is still the fundamental idea in problem solving in
business fields. We always begin with a hypothesis when we tackle problems.
After coming up with the hypothesis, we test it by collecting facts and
checking the chain of reasoning. If we find the facts or logical fallacies
which reject the hypothesis, we turn down the original one and try to find out the
new. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">What
this book is missing unfortunately is how the motivation and intuition that
change the structure of science come to us. People now are striving to find out
the more systematic way to get to the world-changing idea. Granted, that part
is not the scope of this book, but I just wanted to know how Popper thought of
the process of the idea generation. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Reference<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Karl
Popper, </span><span lang="EN-US">“</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">The Logic of
Scientific Discovery</span><span lang="EN-US">”</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">, Routledge
(2nd edition), 2002/3/29<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--EndFragment--></div>
Taejunhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08721720381259486607noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-30344066.post-26457001555869811022012-09-23T16:16:00.001+09:002012-09-23T16:30:27.816+09:00The Art of the Long View<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3"; mso-bidi-font-family: AppleGothic;">I would
like to write what I heard from and learned through a book authored by Peter
Schwartz, an amazing futurist I met at Summer Davos. The gray-hair guy whose
face is always full of beaming smile gave me great implications for thinking
about the future.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
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<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3"; mso-bidi-font-family: AppleGothic;">1. Why we need scenario<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3"; mso-bidi-font-family: AppleGothic;">Scenario
is a tool for ordering one’s perceptions about alternative future environments
in which one’s decisions might be played out. Scenario writing is not for the
prediction about the future, but for the good preparation for the uncertain
future. In the real world, we don’t know ahead of time which scenario would
take place. However, if we prepare for all scenarios and train ourselves, we
will be able to deal with the situation better. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3"; mso-bidi-font-family: AppleGothic;">In a
sense, scenario works as a vehicle for helping people learn. Granted, we can
learn or prepare for the future even without scenarios, but we might need to
take a look at pitfalls of human cognitive behavior - we human beings tend to
deny the possibility of unwanted future, and developing scenarios are useful
tools to avoid missing important factors. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3"; mso-bidi-font-family: AppleGothic;">2. How to make scenarios<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3"; mso-bidi-font-family: AppleGothic;">Alternate focus of questions<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3"; mso-bidi-font-family: AppleGothic;">Scenario
builders should consider both narrow questions related to specific situations
and broad ones the world at large. Otherwise, it’s easy to lose sight of issues
that could be important. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3"; mso-bidi-font-family: AppleGothic;">Think with groups<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3"; mso-bidi-font-family: AppleGothic;">If you
think about the future, it is easy to be caught by one’s mental cycle. Discussing
the questions with diverse people help us avoid failures. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3"; mso-bidi-font-family: AppleGothic;">See interactions between driving force and status quo<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3"; mso-bidi-font-family: AppleGothic;">The world
evolves through the dialectic process of something new and old. Schwartz
mentioned about key sources of the driving forces that shape the new world,
which he call “STEEP”:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3"; mso-bidi-font-family: AppleGothic;">- Society:
Changes in the society could affect the future state of the world. Population
growth, literacy rate, cultural diversity, etc need to be taken into
considerations<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3"; mso-bidi-font-family: AppleGothic;">- Technology:
This force is one of the most important driers of future events. Politics can
change, but a scientific innovation, once released into the world, cannot be
taken back<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3"; mso-bidi-font-family: AppleGothic;">- Economy:
Economic phenomena do shape the future as well. The change in transportation
costs changed the state of oil industry, for example. Fiscal deficit of
developed countries would be the recent powerful driving force to influence the
future of the world<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3"; mso-bidi-font-family: AppleGothic;">- Environment:
The impact of ecological damage on human affairs and the increasing public
perception of ecological harm will have impact on the state of the future<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3"; mso-bidi-font-family: AppleGothic;">- Politics:
Regulations and foreign affairs do affect the state of the world. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3"; mso-bidi-font-family: AppleGothic;">Needless
to say, the relative importance of each factor varies from state to state. Thus
we need to rank them and concentrate more on crucial factors. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3"; mso-bidi-font-family: AppleGothic;">When you
want to see where the new forces are generated, one way is to go fringes. At
the outer edge are the ideas which the majority rejects. Albert Einstein was a
patent clerk in Geneva who couldn’t get a university teaching job. The two “Steves”
who founded Apple had roots, respectively, in Eastern mysticism and the “hacker”
outlaw computer subculture. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3"; mso-bidi-font-family: AppleGothic;">Another
way is to meet remarkable people. When you ask questions to youth, conventional
thinkers and specialists, you’ll be able to understand more about the
generating forces that will eventually shape the world. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3"; mso-bidi-font-family: AppleGothic;">To see
the current situation, or the voice of the majority, the best ways are:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3"; mso-bidi-font-family: AppleGothic;">- See TV
programs (not news), because they represent what people perceive and produce. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3"; mso-bidi-font-family: AppleGothic;">- Listen
to popular music, because those songs show the public feeling<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3"; mso-bidi-font-family: AppleGothic;">- Poll
data also help us understand what people are thinking of<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3"; mso-bidi-font-family: AppleGothic;">- Meeting
people and asking questions help as well<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3"; mso-bidi-font-family: AppleGothic;">Over the
interaction between status quo and new forces, we see the breaking points, or
perception-shaping events. For instance, global warming became the issue for
millions of people, when a NASA meteorologist testified before Congress on
long-term climate changes as the result of pollution in a slow news day. These perception-shaping
events matter, because the changes in public perception can pivot the direction
of history more swiftly and irrevocably than money or military power. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3"; mso-bidi-font-family: AppleGothic;">Critical uncertainties<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3"; mso-bidi-font-family: AppleGothic;">Predetermined
elements (driving force and status quo) are not enough to write scenario. In
every plan, critical uncertainties exist. Scenario planners seek the critical uncertainties
out to prepare for them. These critical uncertainties provide nodes for the
scenario making trees. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3"; mso-bidi-font-family: AppleGothic;">3. Others<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3"; mso-bidi-font-family: AppleGothic;">Let me
share some interesting remarks that he made.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3"; mso-bidi-font-family: AppleGothic;">About network<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3"; mso-bidi-font-family: AppleGothic;">Network
exists thanks to generosity. The powerful network is created by powerful idea,
strong relationship and generosity. It is fundamentally unique that being
generous creates value and that some key driving force of the society exists
thanks to generosity. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3"; mso-bidi-font-family: AppleGothic;">Future of lives<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3"; mso-bidi-font-family: AppleGothic;">Biotech
is making significant progress. In 20 years, 80 years-old people would look
like 40s. We may be able to live longer than 200 years. This means that the
timeframe of our lives will undergo dramatic changes. One initial but important
advice is to choose spouses wisely. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3"; mso-bidi-font-family: AppleGothic;">Magazines worth reading as an information source<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3"; mso-bidi-font-family: AppleGothic;">The
Economist is in his opinion the single best source of information about what is
happening in the world. The other good sources are Discover (science), Wired
magazine (tech), Foreign Affairs (international relations), etc.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">4. Remarks<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">I
found that scenario writing is very akin to what investment professionals usually
do in case analysis. When we make investment decisions, we come up with several
cases to evaluate how the future could be and to see if we can manage even the
worst situation. Investors’ case studies often are narrow-minded, and this book
offers me a bird’s-eye view in scenario planning. As the interaction of various
forces shapes the world, we ought to take more factors into consideration to
prepare well for the future. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Reference<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Peter
Schwartz, “The Art of the Long View”, Crown Business (reprint edition),
1996/4/15<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--EndFragment--></div>
<!--EndFragment--></div>
Taejunhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08721720381259486607noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-30344066.post-46776603451738568882012-09-16T22:24:00.001+09:002012-09-16T22:24:58.598+09:00A Treatise on the Family<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Gary
Becker, a Nobel laureate economist, analyzed marriage, births, divorce,
division of labor in households, inequality, altruism and other nonmaterial
behavior with the tools and framework developed for material behavior, i.e.
economics. His purpose was to develop a rational choice approach to the family.
In his book, “A Treatise on the Family”, Becker used basic tools of economics
and derived conclusions, some of which may sound counter-intuitive. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Division of labor<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Becker
analyzes division of household labor in chapter 2 of the book. He argues that
even if a husband and wife are intrinsically identical, they gain from a
division of labor between market and household activities, with one of them
specializing more in market activities and the other specializing more in
household activities. What he introduced to derive the conclusion is the
concept of relative advantage and human capital investment. The followings are
the theorems in chapter 2 (page 33 to 36):<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Theorem
2.1.</span></u><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";"> If all
members of an efficient household have different comparative advantages, no more
than one member would allocate time to both the market and household sectors.
Everyone with a greater comparative advantage in the market than this member’s
would specialize completely in the market, and everyone with a greater
comparative advantage in the household would specialize completely there.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Theorem
2.2.</span></u><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";"> If all
members of a household have different comparative advantages, no more than one
member would invest in both market and household capital. Members specializing
in the market sector would invest only in market capital, and members
specializing in the household sector would invest only in household capital.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Theorem
2.3. </span></u><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">At most
one member of an efficient household would invest in both market and household
capital and would allocate time to both sectors.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Theorem
2.4.</span></u><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";"> If
commodity production functions have constant or increasing returns to scale,
all members of efficient households would specialize complete in the market or
household sectors and would invest only in market or household capital. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">These
theorems would explain the fact that in many families, there is division of
labor to some extent, and in some cases those who spend time for market labor
also do for household labor as well. Becker’s statement also shows us that why
the labor division is made based on sexual differences – it is because only a
slight difference leads to division of labor and once the division is made, the
comparative advantages of family members would get fixed. Note, however, that
Becker did not say that biological difference is the sole reason of labor
division, or “exploitation of household women”. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Becker
also mentions about the recent trends in women’s labor force participation
rates, fertility, and divorce rates. The rapid expansion of the service sector
enabled more women to participate into market labors. Thus, “the growth in the
earning power of married women raised the forgone value of their time spent at
child care and other household activities, which in turn reduced the demand for
children and encouraged a substitution away from parental, especially mothers’
time. Both of these changes raised the labor force participation of married
women. The gain from marriage is reduced, and hence the attractiveness of
divorce is raised, by higher earnings and labor force participation of married
women, because the sexual division of labor within household becomes less
advantageous.” (page 55) The same can be
said for the women in the course of economic independence in developing
countries. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Competition in marriage market<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Chapter
3 and 4 analyze the competition for marriage partners among men and women of
different incomes, abilities, education ages, family backgrounds, and other
attributes. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">An
efficient marriage market develops “shadow” prices to guide participants to
marriages that will maximize their expected well-being. These prices, central
to the analysis in this chapter and the subsequent one, are responsible for the
more powerful implications. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">The
general concept of marriage in Becker’s model is that marriage increases output
of both male and female, and the marginal increase of output from an additional
husband/wife is positive. In this setup, polygamy is more beneficial for both
male and female, if either men or women differ significantly in efficiency
(ability to generate output), or if the ratio of eligible men to eligible men
and eligible women differ significantly, the conclusion that is analogous to
the efficient use of resources. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Becker’s
model explains under what situation people would invest more in superior skill
(the skill that makes one attractive), e.g. having education, training, etc.
Becker argues that, when the marginal contribution of women/men to output is
greater, people have more incentive to invest to increase their efficiency.
Usually, polygamy increases the expected marginal increase of output, as
men/women can choose more than one mate. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">This
model suggests explanation of why polygyny is more common than polyandry. The
situation originally begins with a small difference. If the marginal
contribution of women is larger, that incentivizes men to invest more in their
skills and women to invest less (as they have more expected opportunity to get
married), and that raises the average efficiency and the inequality in
efficiency of men relative to women. The difference of contribution for output
may be coming from biological difference. Becker said that both average and
standard deviation of years of schooling are usually much lower for women than
men in poor countries with monogamous marriages, where presumably the marginal
contribution of women to output is greater than the marginal contribution of
men because of the value of having many children. (page 104)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Becker
then analyzes assortative mating using the same framework. He says that correlations
between intelligence, education, age, race, nonhuman wealth, religion, ethnic
origin, height, place of origin, and many other traits of spouses are positive
and strong. Especially the correlation between spouses by intelligence is
strong – it is as high as that between siblings. On the other hand, persons who
marry out of their race, religion, age cohort, or education class have
relatively high probabilities of divorce, even when other traits are held constant.
(page 117-118)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Becker
argues that preferences could well affect the equilibrium sorting if costs were
no the same in all households. For example, persons with similar preferences
have an incentive to marry each other if costs are lower when the consumption
patterns of mates are more similar, as they would be when some commodities are
jointly consumed, when production of commodities is more efficient at a larger
scale, or when specialized consumption capital lowers the costs of particular
commodities. (page 123)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Love
can also be understood in Becker’s framework. Love can be defined such that
her/his welfare enters his/her utility function or that he/she values emotional
and physical contact with her/him. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">The demand for children<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Becker
applied the same economic framework to fertility. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">One
factor deeply affecting child birth rate is children’s future productivity. In
the past, there was more child birth in suburban area, because having more
children was more productive on farms than in cities. The reason is that
agriculture in the past did not require any complex labor, and thus children at
young age can contribute to enhance a family’s productivity. The contribution
of farm children has declined as agriculture has become more mechanized and
complex in the course of economic development.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Second
factor is the value of the time of married women, because the cost of the
mother’s time is a major part of the total cost of producing and rearing
children. The number of children is strongly negatively related to the wage
rate or other measures of the value of time of wives. Becker said that the
growth in the earning power of women during the last hundred years in developed
countries is a major cause of both the large increase in labor force
participation of married women and the large decline in fertility. (page 140)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Third
factor is education and the number of children. There are negative correlation
between the number of children and the quality of education for them (see the
table below). Becker points out that Jewish families have been smaller than
average over the last 150 years and have invested more in human capital, and in
recent decades they have had higher incomes. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
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<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Country
and period<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 127.55pt;" valign="top" width="128">
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Change
in <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">birth
rate<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 108.55pt;" valign="top" width="109">
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Change
in schooling<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 189.7pt;" valign="top" width="190">
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">US
1920 -1930<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 127.55pt;" valign="top" width="128">
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">-24%<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 108.55pt;" valign="top" width="109">
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">+81%<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 189.7pt;" valign="top" width="190">
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">US
1960 – 1972<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 127.55pt;" valign="top" width="128">
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">-38%<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 108.55pt;" valign="top" width="109">
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">+33%<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 189.7pt;" valign="top" width="190">
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Japan
1950-1960<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 127.55pt;" valign="top" width="128">
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">-45%<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 108.55pt;" valign="top" width="109">
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">+37%<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 189.7pt;" valign="top" width="190">
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Taiwan
1960 – 1975<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 127.55pt;" valign="top" width="128">
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">-51%<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 108.55pt;" valign="top" width="109">
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">+100%<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 189.7pt;" valign="top" width="190">
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">England
& Wales 1871-1901<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 127.55pt;" valign="top" width="128">
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">-26%<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 108.55pt;" valign="top" width="109">
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">+21%<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Becker also points out that government programs significantly
affected child birth rate. The recent increase in fertility rate in France
would be a good example to show that families would respond to the monetary
incentives in deciding the number of children.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Inequality and Intergenerational Mobility<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Becker
also analyzes inequality. He argues that even if all families were basically
identical, incomes would be unequally distributed because of the unequal
incidence of endowment and market luck. The inequality prevails over
generations, as lucky parents invest more in their children, and the increase
in the children’s incomes would induce them to invest more in their own
children in the succeeding generation, and soon until all descendants benefit
from the initial luck (page 203). Moreover, Children’s incomes are linked to
their parents not only through investments but also through such endowments as
reputation, connections, knowledge, skills, goals provided by their family
environment, genetically determined race and other characteristics. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Altruism<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Becker’s
argument about intergenerational mobility assumes that parents feel better if
their children are better off, i.e. the utility function of parents are made of
both their own income and the quality of children. Becker analyzes the altruism
in the family in this book as well. According to Becker, “altruistic” means
that one’s utility function depends positively on the well-being of others. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Say an
altruist is the mother of a family and has several beneficiaries, including
children, spouses, parents and siblings. Becker analyzes the situation more
profoundly and proposes an interesting theorem (page 288): <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Rotten Kid Theorem: </span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Each beneficiary, no matter how
selfish, maximizes the family income of his benefactor and thereby internalizes
all effects of his actions on other beneficiaries.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Corollary:</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";"> Each beneficiary, no matter how envious
of other beneficiaries or of his benefactor, maximizes the family income of the
benefactor, and hence helps those envied.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Remarks<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">It is
surprising to see that the economic model of this book well describes the
behavior of family to the large extent. Human beings may not be rational as an
individual but may be very rational as a group, and frameworks of economics are
very powerful tool to analyze the situation (sometimes they reveal
uncomfortable truth though). That is why I believe to learn economics is
valuable for everyone even for those who don’t care about economy. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Reference<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Gary
Becker, “A Treatise on the Family”, Harvard University Press (Enlarged edition),
1993/10/15<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<!--EndFragment--></div>
Taejunhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08721720381259486607noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-30344066.post-17658812423262346472012-09-16T09:05:00.002+09:002012-09-16T09:05:57.455+09:00What matters to me the most<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<br />
Sometimes it's very easy to forget who I am, but recent events reminded me of what matters to me the most. <br />
<br />
To be innovative, to achieve cool things, or to make the world more convenient place to be, does make me happy and excited. That said, I realized that I won't be satisfied with those things, if my changes to the society do not solve such issues as poverty, violation of human rights, lack of opportunities and so on, which literally plague people even now. I may be able to create another Facebook (I know e probability is really low), but I would retrospect my life and regret it, saying that "so why did I spend my precious time just to make the world convenient?".<br />
<br />
Now I recall what Frantz Fanon said. I don't exactly remember what he said, but it goes something like this: If the building of a bridge does not enrich the awareness of those who work on it, then that bridge ought not to be built.<br />
<br />
Things are now crystal clear. Now I see what I need to do from now.</div>
Taejunhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08721720381259486607noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-30344066.post-43675862085410378472012-09-15T02:53:00.000+09:002012-09-15T02:53:22.120+09:00Summer Davos 2012<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjaBJHxl1DyMe7OMAlWcYQ1QT-n8wSw13dKDkrgBXm9ZGs4AFLXXiJKoQ21h8BWd3bXiDEkGomsO8E6pdaT5vzBQvxFMRzcGHbiTj0NsOqPrIMtvvBnX3dvQoTclskN1o5sWfSg/s1600/Summer-Davos.jpeg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="252" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjaBJHxl1DyMe7OMAlWcYQ1QT-n8wSw13dKDkrgBXm9ZGs4AFLXXiJKoQ21h8BWd3bXiDEkGomsO8E6pdaT5vzBQvxFMRzcGHbiTj0NsOqPrIMtvvBnX3dvQoTclskN1o5sWfSg/s320/Summer-Davos.jpeg" width="320" /></a></div>
<br />
<div>
Annual Meeting of New Champions 2012 (known as Summer Davos) was held from Sep 11 to 13th. Having attended the forum, I felt it is great privilege to be invited such a session. </div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
I think the most valuable things in this forum is that you can meet people in the cutting-edge and ask questions in person. Granted, you can learn what is hot in every industry through internet nowadays, but to hear something directly from people's mouth and to be able to ask questions are totally different experience. Not to waste my time, I asked questions in most of the sessions. </div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
A few sessions were quite interesting to me: the future of finance, education and the role of business. I would like to post separate entries if I can. </div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
Above all, perhaps the people amazed me the most were Global Shapers (I belong to the community as well). It was such an experience to see that people of the same generations are doing something great around the world. They gave me inspirations and motivations to continue and put more efforts on what I am doing now. </div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
<br /></div>
</div>
Taejunhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08721720381259486607noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-30344066.post-81988151329142401002012-08-29T22:59:00.000+09:002012-08-29T22:59:02.083+09:00The Condition of Postmodernity<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Changes
in cultures may seem to be abrupt, but the underlying social process seldom
experiences the changes, argued David Harvey, a Marxist Sociologist as well as a
geographer, in his book “The Condition of Postmodernity”, a book on the shift
from modernity to postmodernity. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">What is postmodernity<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Harvey
uses architectures, arts, media and so on as examples to describe the general
concept of postmodernity. He concludes that postmodernity is represented by its
fragmentary, ephemeral and chaotic characteristics. The table below shows the
comparisons between modernity and postmodernity (detailed in the table of page
340).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">Modernity<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">Postmodernity<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<tr style="height: 12.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 1;">
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<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">Economics of scale<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
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<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">Economics of scope<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 12.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 2;">
<td nowrap="" style="background: white; border-bottom: solid #A6A6A6 1.0pt; border: none; height: 12.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid #A6A6A6 .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 196.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="196">
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">Hierarchy<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">Anarchy<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 12.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 3;">
<td nowrap="" style="background: white; border-bottom: solid #A6A6A6 1.0pt; border: none; height: 12.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid #A6A6A6 .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 196.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="196">
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">Homogeneity<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">Diversity<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<tr style="height: 12.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 4;">
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">Detail division of
labor<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">Socialdivision of
labor<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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</tr>
<tr style="height: 12.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 5;">
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">Monopoly capital<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">Entrepreneurialism<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">State power<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">Financial power<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">Trade unions<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">Individualism<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<tr style="height: 12.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 8;">
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">Ethics<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">Aesthetics<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">God the Father<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">The Holy Ghost<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">Materiality<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">Immateriality<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">Blue collar<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
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<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">White collar<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 12.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 12;">
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<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">Semantics<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
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<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">Rhetoric<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 12.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 13;">
<td nowrap="" style="background: white; border-bottom: solid #A6A6A6 1.0pt; border: none; height: 12.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid #A6A6A6 .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 196.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="196">
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">Centralization<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td nowrap="" style="background: white; border-bottom: solid #A6A6A6 1.0pt; border: none; height: 12.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid #A6A6A6 .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 196.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="196">
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">Decentralization<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 12.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 14;">
<td nowrap="" style="background: white; border-bottom: solid #A6A6A6 1.0pt; border: none; height: 12.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid #A6A6A6 .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 196.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="196">
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">Operational management<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td nowrap="" style="background: white; border-bottom: solid #A6A6A6 1.0pt; border: none; height: 12.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid #A6A6A6 .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 196.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="196">
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">Strategic management<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 12.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 15;">
<td nowrap="" style="background: white; border-bottom: solid #A6A6A6 1.0pt; border: none; height: 12.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid #A6A6A6 .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 196.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="196">
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">Narrative<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<td nowrap="" style="background: white; border-bottom: solid #A6A6A6 1.0pt; border: none; height: 12.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid #A6A6A6 .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 196.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="196">
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">Image<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 12.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 16;">
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<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">Utopia<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td nowrap="" style="background: white; border-bottom: solid #A6A6A6 1.0pt; border: none; height: 12.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid #A6A6A6 .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 196.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="196">
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">Heterotopias<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 12.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 17;">
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<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">Function<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">Fiction<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 12.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 18;">
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<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">Becoming<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td nowrap="" style="background: white; border-bottom: solid #A6A6A6 1.0pt; border: none; height: 12.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid #A6A6A6 .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 196.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="196">
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">Being<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 12.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 19;">
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<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">Epistemology<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td nowrap="" style="background: white; border-bottom: solid #A6A6A6 1.0pt; border: none; height: 12.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid #A6A6A6 .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 196.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="196">
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">Ontology<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 12.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 20; mso-yfti-lastrow: yes;">
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<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">State interventionism<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td nowrap="" style="background: white; border-bottom: solid #A6A6A6 1.0pt; border: none; height: 12.0pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid #A6A6A6 .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 196.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="196">
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">Laissez-faire<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">For
instance, a typical modern building is somewhat simple, valuing its function.
On the other hands, a typical postmodern building is somewhat chaotic. An
office building of postmodernity may have forests in its mezzanine floor, which
represent a fictional space. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Take
another example. Art of modernity is somewhat simple. For instance, the arts
born during the civil revolution represented very simple enlightenment agenda.
Art of postmodernity, on the other hand, is more chaotic. As a typical
postmodern art, Harvey cited an advertisement of Citizen (watch), in which a naked
woman wears only a watch. He says that this advertisement engages directly with
the postmodernist techniques of superimposition of ontologically different
worlds that bear no necessary relation to each other. (page 64)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Underlying substructure of postmodernity<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Harvey
uses the concept of substructure-superstructure relation proposed by Karl Marx,
arguing that there only was the change in production style during the shift
from modernity to postmodernity. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Substructure
of modernity is organized capitalism, best typified by Fordism mass production.
Concentrated and centralized production, large commercial and monopoly capital,
state powers, expansion of economic empires and the others represent this
capitalism. Harvey argues that modernity is the response to this production
relation. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Postmodernity
is not the mutant, Harvey argues. The shift from modernity to postmodernity merely
represents a change in the production relation in the society, to which
superstructure corresponds. The “Disorganized capitalism” is represented by
de-concentration of corporate power, internationalization of capital, decline
in state power, outright decline of class-based politics and institutions and
so on (the contrast between organized and disorganized capitalism is shown in
page 175).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">The
technology advancement also had significant influence on the production
relations, through “compressing the time and space”. Harvey argues that
time-space compression is the conspicuous characteristic of postmodernity. For
instance, the development of aviation industry made the world smaller, enabling
the globalized production relations. The progress of information technology brought
about just-in-time production. Using the words more familiar to us, we can say
that the globalization and worldwide collaboration brought about the mixture of
different cultures, spontaneous activity of people around the world, and so on.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Thus
Harvey argues as follows in the beginning of this book. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">“There
has been a sea-change in cultural as well as in political-economic practices
since around 1972. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";"> This sea-change is bound up with the
emergence of new dominant ways in which we experience space and time.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";"> While simultaneity in the shifting dimensions
of time and space is no proof of necessary or causal connection, strong a
priori grounds can be adduced for the proposition that there is some kind of
necessary relation between the rise of postmodernist cultural forms, the
emergence of more flexible modes of capital accumulation, and a new round of
‘time-space compression’ in the organization of capitalism. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";"> But these changes, when set against the basic
rules of capitalistic accumulation, appear more as shifts in surface appearance
rather than as signs of the emergence of some entirely new postcapitalist or
even postindustrial society.” <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Consequences of postmodernity<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Harvey
argues that the time and space cannot be free from social affairs. They always
express some kind of class or other social content, and are more often than not
the focus of intense social struggle. In the developed capitalism, the time and
space are more tightly connected with money. For instance, in the postmodernity, people may
seem to enjoy more liquid labor market, but that phenomenon is the reflection
that time is more closely connected to capitalism. This new production relation
could be the bedrock of Lassies-faire and “self-responsibility”, the shift that
Harvey issued an warnings.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Remarks<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Though
some arguments are not logically clear to me, it is valuable to see
postmodernity from the perspective of historical materialism. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">The
book shows us how to predict what will come next. 21th century will mark the
full-fledged globalization and information technology advancement, which are
changing our production relations and thus lead to the corresponding cultural
changes, some of which are already in progress.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Reference<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">David
Harvey, “The Condition of Postmodernity”, Wiley-Blackwell, 1992/4/16<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<!--EndFragment--></div>
Taejunhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08721720381259486607noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-30344066.post-55700903897599430302012-08-28T22:31:00.002+09:002012-08-28T22:31:53.614+09:00The Theory of Economic Development<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="font-family: 'ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3';">Nowadays,
most of people would agree that innovation is the key driver of economic
growth. That idea, however, was not common 100 years ago, and it is remarkable
that Joseph Schumpeter argued that innovation is the key factor of economic
development and the driver of economic cycle in his book “The Theory of
Economic Development” in 1911.</span></div>
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<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Circular Economic System<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">In
analyzing economic development Schumpeter started with economic model. He thought
economy as a circular system, and he argued that the way of economic
investigation is to understand the causal relationship between the “unknown”
economic phenomena and “known” external factors. According to Schumpeter, it is
not the explanation if an economic phenomenon is explained by another economic
phenomenon – as that is something like a tautology.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">“When
we succeed in finding a definite causal relation between two phenomena, our
problem is solved if the one which plays the “causal” role is non-economic. …
If, on the other hand, the causal factor is itself economic in nature, we must
continue our explanatory efforts until we ground upon a non-economic bottom.”
(page 5) <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">“The
economic system will not change capriciously on its own initiative but will be
at all times connected with the preceding state of affairs.” (page 9) <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEicnvZj7w3h4V9U1TuftfqTGn1ZBa0-3Q05wG_t80Uu6cVDQeZfcRV8vknm0RfZ8T8lQnNgHmvbjpiPmqIrPc2CrxXyHvNcpFCb2Hm-OqPmDjyN89QcmJUvpEfBacZXziRPLT3a/s1600/Untitled.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEicnvZj7w3h4V9U1TuftfqTGn1ZBa0-3Q05wG_t80Uu6cVDQeZfcRV8vknm0RfZ8T8lQnNgHmvbjpiPmqIrPc2CrxXyHvNcpFCb2Hm-OqPmDjyN89QcmJUvpEfBacZXziRPLT3a/s320/Untitled.png" width="262" /></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">If we
trace back production processes, we get to only two factors. One is human
being, and another is nature (lands). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">What is Economic Development?<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">According
to Schumpeter, “development” has the following characteristic. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">First,
it comes from within the economic system and is not the result of changes of
external inputs. Schumpeter strictly separated economic change due to external
factors from that due to internal ones. He said: “By ‘Development’, we shall
understand only such changes in economic life as are not forced upon it from
without but arise by its own initiative, from within.” (page 63)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Thus
economic development is accompanied by the changes in consumers’ wants, since
they are the only those who bring about the change within the economic system.
Schumpeter thought that the producer of new goods, or entrepreneur, initiate
economic change, by educating consumers - “they (consumers) are taught to want
new things, or things which differ in some respect or other from those which they
have been in the habit of using.” (page 65) <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Then
how are the new goods created? Schumpeter argued that new goods are created
through new combination, i.e. the way to combine materials and forces differently
from what is done before. According to Schumpeter, there are five types of new
combinations: (1) the introduction of a new good, (2) the introduction of a new
method of production, (3) the opening of a new market, (4) the conquest of a
new source of supply of raw materials or half-manufactured goods, and (5) the
carrying out of the new organization of any industry. (page 66)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Second,
development occurs disruptively, not smoothly. They cannot be understood by
means of any analysis of the circular flow, although they are purely economic
and although their explanation is obviously among the tasks of pure theory,
Schumpeter argued. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Schumpeter
said that entrepreneurs appear not continuously, because the appearance of one
or a few entrepreneurs facilitates the appearance of others, and these others
facilitates the appearance of more, in ever-increasing numbers (page 228),
until entrepreneurial profits are eliminated. This proposition explains why we
see boom and crisis. The advent of a number of entrepreneurs create new
economic orders as well as booming periods, which inevitably brings about the
crisis in the future by the force of equilibrium. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Third,
it brings qualitative changes or “revolutions”, which fundamentally displace
old equilibria and create radically new conditions and economic orders. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Schumpeter
understood the economic development as a dynamic process, in which three
corresponding opposites interact: “First, by the opposition of two real
processes: the circular flow or the tendency towards equilibrium on the one
hand, a change in the channels of economic routine or a spontaneous change in
the economic data arising from within the system on the other. Secondly, by the
opposition of two theoretical apparatuses: statistics and dynamics. Thirdly, by
the opposition of two types of conduct, which, following reality, we can
picture as two types of individuals: mere managers and entrepreneurs.” (page
83)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Will to innovate<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Schumpeter
said that to create new things is difficult because of three reasons. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">First
of all, it is impossible to survey exhaustively all the effects and
counter-effects of the projected enterprise, as entrepreneurs by definition
create things invisible at the beginning. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Thus
Schumpeter pointed out the importance of intuition: “Here the success of
everything depends upon intuition, the capacity of seeing things in a way which
afterwards proves to be true, even though it cannot be established at the
moment, and of grasping the essential fact, discarding the unessential, even
though one can give no account of the principles by which this is done.
Thorough preparatory work, and special knowledge, breadth of intellectual
understanding, talent for logical analysis, may under certain circumstances be
sources of failure.” (page 85)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Secondly,
people tend to have conservative mindset, feeling reluctance to do something
new even if the objective difficulties do not exist. “Thought turns again and
again into the accustomed track even if it has become unsuitable and the more
suitable innovation in itself presents no particular difficulties. The very
nature of fixed habits of thinking, their energy-saving function, is founded
upon the fact that they have become subconscious, that they yield their results
automatically and are proof against criticism and even against contradiction by
individual facts. “ (page 86)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Thirdly,
the difficulty comes from the social environment against those who initiate
something new. This is natural antagonism, as innovations often demolish the
existing businesses or social apparatuses. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Thus,
Schumpeter emphasized the importance of will to go through all the difficulties
that entrepreneurs should endure. He argued that there are three wills that
enable entrepreneurs to carry on. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">(1)
The dream and the will to found a private kingdom<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">(2)
The will to conquer<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">(3)
The joy of creating, getting things done, and exercising one’s energy and
ingenuity<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<div class="MsoNormal">
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<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Remarks<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">What I
learned the most in this book is that the good study comes out of solid
framework. Innovation is often treated as something mystical, but Schumpeter
explained the phenomena using certain framework (in his case, economic model).
Although “the framework of innovation” sounds contradictory, as innovation is
something that destroys the existing framework, we still need to stick to
framework in the first place, to come up with something beyond the
framework. In other words, the framework
ready to undergo dynamic change may be what is needed to get to brilliant idea.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Reference<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Joseph
A. Schumpeter, “The Theory of Economic Development”, Transaction Pub; Reprint edition,
1983/01 <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<!--EndFragment--></div>
Taejunhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08721720381259486607noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-30344066.post-73945682309229262812012-08-06T00:36:00.002+09:002012-08-06T00:36:18.398+09:00Organizations<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Classical
models of organizations perceived the members of the organizations to be
“machines”. The models tended to ignore the wide range of roles which the
participant simultaneously performs and could not effectively treat problems
associated with the coordination of the roles. The new models were born in mid
20th century, paying attention to human motivation and diversity as the central
issue for organizations. Simon and March introduced the concept of bounded
rationality of individuals and developed the study of organizations in their
book “Organizations”. In this book, an organization is systems of coordinated
action among individuals and groups whose preferences, knowledges, interests or
information differ. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">The
book coveres key topics about organizations, especially about survival of the
organizations and decision-making. For survival of organizations, participation
and leaving of the members and conversion from conflict into coordination are
the keys. For better decision-making, managing organizational styles and
decision-making process are the keys. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Participation and Leaving<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Participation
and leaving of members are key issues for survival of organizations. To analyze
them, Simon and March introduced the concept of “Organization equilibrium”,
which is the conditions of survival of an organization. The equilibrium means
that the organizations succeed in arranging payments to its participants
adequate to motivate their continued participation. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">To
explain the members’ participation into organizations, Simon and March
introduced the “inducement-contribution” model, in which the members
participate into the organization by considering the satisfaction from their
participation and the visibility (not the real existence) of alternatives.
Here, the satisfaction is difference between (1) the payments made by the
organization to its participants (“inducement”) and (2) the payments made by
the participants to their organization (“contribution”). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Conflict and Coordination<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Organizational
conflict makes its members face difficulty in making a choice or have choices
that are mutually inconsistent to achieve every member’s preference. The
conflict arises from incomparability of alternatives, the unacceptability of
alternatives and uncertainty about the consequences of alternatives. Organizations
strive to convert conflict among their members into coordination for joint
survival of the organizations and the members. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">To
achieve the goal, organizations try to control over four key drivers to
motivate their members:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">(1)
information: by processing and channeling it<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">(2)
identities: by shaping common goals and loyalties of members<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">(3)
story: by creating shared story<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">(4)
incentives: by promoting appropriate behaviors<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">The
problem is that the world is not in an ideal shape. There are uncertainty,
ambiguity, limited cognitive & affective capabilities of human beings,
complexities of balancing tradeoffs, and threats of competitors, the things
that make it impossible for organizations to have perfect control over four key
drivers. Thus, the organizations try to overcome the challenges by four ways:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">(1)
calculation, planning and analysis<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">(2)
learning from experience<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">(3)
creating and using systems of rules, procedures and interpretations<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">(4)
weaving supportive cultures, agreements,
structures, and beliefs around their actives<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Decision making<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">The
final part of the book is devoted for static and dynamic decision-making. The
former is mainly the issue of organizational style and the latter is of process
management. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Key
concept that March and Simon introduced here is the “bounded rationality” which
means limited ability of cognitive powers of human beings. Due to the bounded
rationality, rational behavior calls for simplified models that capture the
main features of a problem without capturing all its complexities. The
organizational style is made such that the style is consistent with bounded
rationality. For instance:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">(1)
Optimizing is replaced by satisficing, i.e., the requirement that satisfactory
levels of the criterion variables be attained<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">(2)
Alternatives of action and consequences of action are discovered sequentially
through search process<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">(3)
Repertories of action programs are developed by organizations and individuals,
and these serve as the alternatives of choice in recurrent situations<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">(4)
Each specific action program deals with a restricted range of situations and a
restricted range of consequences<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">(5)
Each action program is capable of being executed in semi-independence of the
others – they are only coupled together<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">The
final chapter of the book is about problem solving and innovations. Planning is
the key in process management, but perfect planning misses innovation, as it
comes from outside elements. Thus organizations need to have scheme to bring
about innovations. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Remarks<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Although
nothing is new in this book, it is notable that Simon and March treated the central
issues in today’s management such as problem solving and innovation process and
the relevant organizational style. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Reference<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">James
G. March and Herbert A. Simon, “Organizations”, Wiley-Blackwell (second
edition), 1993/5/17<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
</div>Taejunhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08721720381259486607noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-30344066.post-47986328251910127062012-07-25T10:27:00.002+09:002012-07-25T10:27:48.485+09:00Childhood and Society<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ Pro W3";">Human
body, human mind and society are interrelated each other. However, the scientific
anatomy often fails to see those three in entity, perceiving human minds to be
narrow and static. Psychoanalysts are different. Thanks to their analysis
methodology, psychoanalysts overcome this pitfall and are able to see the
mutual influence of soma, mind and society. They study individual human crises
by becoming therapeutically involved in them, and can see that somatic tension,
individual anxiety, and group panic have the same rout. Erik Erikson, a
psychoanalyst authored “Childhood and Society”, a brilliant work to elucidate the
relationship among body, mind and society through his clinical psychological
analysis of childhood. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ Pro W3";">Childhood and development of ego<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ Pro W3";">Human
beings have a long childhood; the more civilized the community, the longer
childhood people experience. Long childhood makes a technical and mental
virtuoso out of man, but it also leaves a lifelong residue of emotional
immaturity in him or her. Why? <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ Pro W3";">The
reasons are related to the stages of human psychological development. According
to Erikson, human beings experience 8 stages in their psychological development.
For more detail, see: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erikson%27s_stages_of_psychosocial_development">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erikson%27s_stages_of_psychosocial_development</a>
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ Pro W3";">Each
developmental stage requires children to acquire each psychological ability
(virtue) for their further maturity, and there always are the challenges and
potential conflicts. For instance, the first developmental stage requires that a
child acquire basic trust in his or her first developmental stage, but there
always is the risk of embracing mistrust. The conflicts between the
confrontational values (in this case trust and mistrust) create anxiety, and one’s
ego manages it through providing defensive measures with him/herself, the
measures that are sometimes expressed in peculiar ways. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ Pro W3";">Erikson’s
basic concept of ego is coming from Freud. Feud argued that human beings have
the pressure of excessive wishes (the “id”) and the oppressive force of
conscience (the “superego”). According to Freud, the id is the oldest province
of human mind; it is everything which would make us “mere creatures”, such as
responses of the amoeba, impulses of apes, and so on. On the other hand, the
superego is a governor which limits the expression of the id by opposing to it
the demands of conscience. Sometimes the superego oppresses ego too much and it
is analogous to those of the blindly impulsive id: the cruelty of religious
inquisition is one example. The ego dwells between id and superego, balancing
them through defensive measures and thus restricting the development of
anxiety. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ Pro W3";">Erikson
argues that the events that children experience are designed to overcome these
challenges that children face in their psychological developmental process. He
argues that the society lighten the inescapable conflicts of childhood with a
promise of some security, identity, and integrity. Let me mention two
mechanisms for example - cultures and identity.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ Pro W3";">Cultures and identity<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ Pro W3";">Erikson
studied primitive cultures of Native American Tribes: Yurok and Sioux and found
that the tribes use behavioral configurations to protects them from individual
anxiety which might lead to panic. For instance, the Plains hunters feel
anxiety over emasculation and immobilization, the Pacific fishermen feel it
over being left without provisions. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ Pro W3";">“The
discovery of primitive child-training systems makes it clear that primitive
societies are neither infantile stages of mankind nor arrested deviations from
the proud progressive norms which we represent: they are a complete form of
mature human living, often of a homogeneity and simple integrity which we at
times might well envy. “ (page 112)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ Pro W3";">“To
accomplish this (managing anxiety), a primitive culture seems to use childhood
in a number of ways: it gives specific meanings to early bodily and
interpersonal experience in order to create the right combination of organ
modes and the proper emphasis on social modalities; it carefully and
systematically channelizes throughout the intricate pattern of its daily life
the energies thus provoked and deflected; and it gives consistent supernatural
meaning to the infantile anxieties which it has exploited by such provocation.”
(page 185)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ Pro W3";">Take
another example. Religion organizes the conflict between trust and evil,
collectively cultivating trust in the form of faith and exploiting the sense of
evil in the form of sin. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ Pro W3";">“Such
an organization may have its era in history when it reinforces this particular
ego value with a ceremonial power capable of infusing civilizations and of
replenishing the communality of its followers in one form of human integrity. “
(page 277) <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ Pro W3";">According
to Erikson, identity based on cultures plays the central role as an anchor to
keep the inner equilibrium in human minds. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ Pro W3";">“We
concluded that only a gradually accruing sense of identity, based on the
experience of social health and cultural solidarity at the end of each major
childhood crisis, promises that periodical balance in human life which – in
integration of the ego stages – makes for a sense of humanity. But wherever
this sense is lost, wherever integrity yields to despair and disgust, wherever
generativity yields to stagnation, intimacy to isolation, and identity to
confusion, an array of associated infantile fears are apt to become mobilized:
for only an identity safely anchored in the “patrimony” of a cultural identity
can produce a workable pyshosocial equilibrium.” (page 412)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ Pro W3";">Erikson
argues that young people now experiences difficulties in acquiring cultural
identity, as the world experiences the rapid changes. At his time, the world
experienced the World Wars, world-wide communication, mechanization, urbanization
and so on, and the changes in milieu made it difficult for young people to have
a solid cultural identity. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ Pro W3";">Remarks<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ Pro W3";">Although
the comment may not be relevant to the very contents of the book, this book
made me to think of the hint to see the entity. Human minds, bodies and society
are connected, and just seeing them separately may lead to the wrong
conclusion. One way to avoid this failure is to see a creature living in the
entity. Karl Marx said that a product in capitalism society is reflecting all
aspects of the society, and the same can be said for the analysis of minds and
society. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ Pro W3";">The
book also inspired me to think about the meaning of social mechanisms. Any odd
system, such as old traditions, has the historical rationale of its existence.
Just to laugh at the “Japanese” style corporate cultures is too easy. What is
difficult but truly valuable is to find out the raison d’etre of these cultures
and bring out implications and lessons for the future. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ Pro W3";">Reference<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ Pro W3";">Erik H.
Erikson, “Childhood and Society”, W W Norton & Co Inc (Reissue edition), 1993/08<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<!--EndFragment--></div>Taejunhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08721720381259486607noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-30344066.post-51720362111293483132012-07-10T17:27:00.002+09:002012-07-10T17:44:13.103+09:00The Consequences of Modernity<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3';">People tend to call the current era
“post-modernity”, “new society”, etc., but Anthony Giddens argues in his book
“The Consequences of Modernity” that we are not experiencing the era beyond
modernity; rather we are now at the very consequences of modernity where key
characteristics of modernity became radicalized and universalized than ever
before. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3';">The key observational characteristics of
modernity are “disembedding mechanisms (or abstract systems, composed of
symbolic tokens and expert systems)”, which are backed by trust based on “faceless
commitments”. This trust in strangers is generated by the situation of
modernity which experienced the unprecedented social changes, such as (1) human
beings transcended the power of natures, and (2) emerging reflexive science
cast doubt on divinity of Gods and myths, (3) change in institutions.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3';">Disembedding
mechanisms overcoming time and space<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3';">The term “disembedding” means the “lifting
out” of social relations from local contexts of interaction and their
restructuring across indefinite spans of time-space. (page 21) <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3';">Giddens argues that there are two types of
disembedding mechanisms. The first is the creation of symbolic tokens. The
symbolic tokens are media of interchange which can be “passed around” without
regard to the specific characteristics of individuals or group. (page 22) An
example of tokens is money, says Giddens, because money in its developed form
is defined in terms of credit and debt, where these concern a plurality of
widely scattered interchanges. It is a means of bracketing time and so of
lifting transactions out of particular milieux of exchanges, and thus it is a
means of time-space distanciation. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3';">(page24). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3';">The second type of disembedding mechanism
is the establishment of expert system. The expert systems remove social
relations from the immediacies of context, by providing “guarantees” of
expectations across distanciated time-space. For instance, we perceive a lawyer
as a legal professional regardless of their seniority or the relationship we have
made with him or her. (page 28)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3';">Background
changes in modernity<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3';">A. Radicalized Reflexivity<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3';">Giddens argues that reflexive
appropriation of knowledge is the characteristics of modernity. Here,
reflexivity means the custom that one examines, reflects and reforms oneself
(or simply self reflection). The reflexivity of modern social life consists in
the fact that social practices are constantly examined and reformed in the
light of incoming information about those very practices, thus constitutively
altering their character (page 38). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3';">Needless to say, reflexivity is not the
unique idea of modernity. Giddens says that only in the era of modernity is the
revision of convention (i.e. reflexivity) radicalized to apply to all aspects
of human life, including technological intervention into the material world. He
cites examples of modern social science, such as economics, as the one having
reflexive characteristic in its research style. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3';">The knowledge applied to social activity
has four factors. First, some individuals and groups can more easily have
access to the knowledge. Second, social values and empirical knowledge are
inter-connected. Third, knowledge about social lives transcends the intentions
of those who apply it to transformative ends. Fourth, knowledge reflexively
applied to the conditions of system reproduction intrinsically alters the
circumstances to which it originally referred. (page 44)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3';">B. Changes of
Institutions in modernity <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3';">Giddens says that modernity is composed of
four institutional dimensions: industrialism, capitalism surveillance, and
military power. He argues that those four, especially industrialism and
capitalism, are compatible and are under the concept of modernity. Modernity is
inherently of global nature, and as globalization makes progress, the four dimensions
transform into international division of labor, world capitalist economy,
nation-state system, and world military power. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3';">Trust in
modernity<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3';">In modern social life, many people
interact with and thus trust others who are strangers to them. (page 80) Giddens
says that all disembedding mechanisms, both symbolic tokens and expert systems,
depend upon trust. Thus, he thinks trust is the fundamental factor of the
institutions of modernity. Trust is a form of “faith”, in which the confidence
vested in probable outcomes expresses a <i>commitment</i>
to something rather than just a cognitive understanding. Giddens also argues
that the trust involved in modern institutions are based upon vague and partial
understandings of their “knowledge base” (page 27)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3';">Trust in itself had existed long before
the modernity, but the striking feature of modern trust is that people express
faceless commitments, instead of facework commitments. Here, facework
commitments refer to trust relations which are sustained by or expressed in
social connections established in circumstances of co-presence. Faceless
commitments, instead, are the faith in symbolic tokens or expert systems
(Giddens terms it “abstract systems”). Giddens says as follows:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3';">“It will be a basic part of my argument
that <i>the nature of modern institutions is
deeply bound up with the mechanisms of trust in abstract systems</i>,
especially trust in expert systems.” (page 83)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-right: 3.9pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3';">Trust usually is demanded where there is
ignorance, i.e. we trust things that we don’t know well, e.g. scientists’
remarks. According to psychology, a sense of the reliability of persons and
things is basic to feelings of ontological (existential) security. In other
words, trust is something to do with survival of human beings. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-right: 3.9pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3';">However, the above understandings do not
help us to understand why in modernity the meanings of trust experienced
transformation. To answer to the question why modernity sees faceless
commitments, Giddens examines the environment of trust and risk in pre-modern
and modern cultures. Modern era marked the great progress in science and the power
of human beings. The community no longer is limited to the location thanks to
the advancement in mobility. The biggest pre-modern threats were based on nature,
environments or locality, whereas they became to be generated by human beings
themselves and globalized. The reflexive science diminished the influence of
religions, left human beings in a threat of personal meaninglessness. (the
table below is from page 102)</span></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh2xLCSaQvRptO27LjDzHxiPDfULf8gSjDWFHTm-H57rnrIrsAByDdjaXCI41LDiianYS-4AKGRi2K3DZh0z103_E0SgX-vGswdQCQQqTdNPLQ15oWRGdgeFKwIfvP5gUvS1qaj/s1600/Modernity.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh2xLCSaQvRptO27LjDzHxiPDfULf8gSjDWFHTm-H57rnrIrsAByDdjaXCI41LDiianYS-4AKGRi2K3DZh0z103_E0SgX-vGswdQCQQqTdNPLQ15oWRGdgeFKwIfvP5gUvS1qaj/s400/Modernity.png" width="395" /></a></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3';">This environmental change caused abstract
systems to provide a great deal of security in day-to-day life which was absent
in pre-modern orders. As we believed in God and neighbors in pre-modern era, we
now need new Gods and believe in expert systems and symbolic tokens. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3';">Remarks<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3';">To me it was an interesting idea that
trust based on faceless commitment is not the product of 21st century but of
modern era. Reading through the discussions that Giddens made on trust building
in modernity, we will be able to foresee how the discussions on faceless trust
would evolve. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-right: 3.9pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3';">It is not the 21st century that human
beings exceeded the limitation of time and space. Internet is not the
fundamental reason of transcending time and space; it is the trust that enables
human beings to go beyond the limitations of time and space. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3';">Reference<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-right: 3.9pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3';">Anthony Giddens, “The Consequences of
Modernity”, Polity, 1991/9/2<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
Taejunhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08721720381259486607noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-30344066.post-71221877501999846812012-07-05T23:48:00.000+09:002012-07-05T23:48:06.650+09:00The Tacit Dimension<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">“<span lang="EN-US">I shall reconsider human knowledge by starting from the fact that <i>we can know more than we can tell</i></span>”<span lang="EN-US">, said Michel Polanyi in his book </span>“<span lang="EN-US">The Tacit
Dimension</span>”<span lang="EN-US">, whose work paved the way for the study of
tacit knowledge, the concept that is later applied to business analysis by
Ikujiro Nonaka. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">As an
example to explain the concept of tacit knowledge, Polanyi uses the way we
identify one</span><span style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">’<span lang="EN-US">s face. We cannot explain why, but can confidently identify our
friend</span></span><span lang="EN-US">’</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">s face from a million of others. The form
of nose, width of mouth, color of eyes and the others constitute a face of
individuals, but the aggregation of individual factors is somehow different
from the entity. The same can be said when we talk about personal preference:
although we list key conditions for friends, we tend to make friends who do not
satisfy the conditions. Something is missing in listing particular factors
only. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Polanyi
introduces the concept of tacit knowledge, which is the integrated knowledge
that captures wholeness of the things.
Polanyi seems to be inspired the idea of Gestalt psychology, which
emphasizes the importance of wholeness in human recognition system. He
emphasized the importance of wholeness in human intelligence and said as below:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">“<span lang="EN-US">The highest forms of integration loom largest now. These are
manifested in the tacit power of scientific and artistic genius. The art of the
expert diagnostician may be listed next, as a somewhat impoverished from of
discovery, and we may put in the same class the performance of skills, whether
artistic, athletic, or technical.</span>”<span lang="EN-US"> (page 6)<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Basic structure of tacit knowledge<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Let us
briefly look at how Polanyi describes the basic structure of tacit knowledge. He
argued that tacit knowledge has four aspects: functional, phenomenal, semantic,
and ontological<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Let</span><span style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">’<span lang="EN-US">s say that there
happened an event A and then an event B. For instance, a child sees dark cloud
and then rain. Once a child form tacit knowledge on raining, he or she can
combine the two kinds of knowing (functional aspect of tacit knowledge), can tell
that rain will come by seeing dark cloud (phenomenal aspect), is able to find
meaning in dark cloud, i.e. meaningless feelings turns into meaningful one
(semantic aspect), and, finally, the child will be able to understand the
comprehensive entity of how weather changes (ontological aspect).<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Entity and particulars<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Polanyi
claims that we acquire tacit knowing by </span><span style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">“<span lang="EN-US">indwelling</span>”<span lang="EN-US"> things. For instance, when a boy
learns how to ride bicycle, he needs to integrate various body actions. He
needs to be fully used to each action, so that he can internalize the action
and don</span>’<span lang="EN-US">t need to be conscious of it. You cannot ride a
bicycle if you care every bodily movement. Polanyi called this internalization
of each action indwelling. He also used the word </span>“<span lang="EN-US">interiorization</span>”
<span lang="EN-US">as the same meaning of indwelling. Once we succeed in
indwelling things, we will be able to see each what we indwelled as the entity.
This is the process of tacit knowledge formation. By knowing and indwelling
particulars, we reach to principle to explain particulars as an entity.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Thus,
just breaking down the entity into particulars will lead to lose the
understanding of wholeness, and that is the common pitfall of investigations.
Polanyi said:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">“<span lang="EN-US">We can see now how an unbridled lucidity can destroy our
understanding of complex matters. Scrutinize closely the particulars of a
comprehensive entity and their meaning is effaced, our conception of the entity
is destroyed. Such cases are well known. Repeat a word several times, attending
carefully to the motion of your tongue and lips, and to the sound you make, and
soon the word will sound hollow and eventually lose its meaning. By
concentrating attention on his fingers, a pianist can temporarily paralyze his
movement. We can make our selves lose sight of a pattern or physiognomy by
examining its several parts under sufficient magnification. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";"> Admittedly, the destruction can be made good
by interiorizing the particulars once more. The word uttered again in its
proper context, the pianist</span><span style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">’<span lang="EN-US">s fingers used again with his mind on his music, the features of a
physiognomy and the details of a pattern glanced at once more from a distance:
they all come to life and recover their meaning and their comprehensive
relationship.</span>” <span lang="EN-US"> (page 18)<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">If
tacit knowledge is the essence of all knowledge, ideal of exact science, i.e.
the science full of lucidity and dividing the concept into very tiny elements,
is fundamentally misleading and a source of fallacies. Polanyi said that the
process of formalizing all knowledge to the exclusion of any tacit knowing is
self-defeating. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Importance of ambiguity<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">If
tacit knowledge does exist and play a determinate role in knowledge formation,
then knowledge wholly based on only visible and identifiable grounds collapse. Although
modern science has weighed importance on objectivity and testable experiences,
Polanyi claims that metaphysical belief, which is sometime ambiguous and very
logically weak, should play the central role in the progress of science. He says:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">“<span lang="EN-US">Metaphysical beliefs are not explicitly professed today by
scientists, let alone by the general public. Modern science arose claiming to
be grounded in experience and not on a metaphysics derived from first
principles. My assertion that science can have discipline and originality only
if it believes that the facts and values of science bear on a still unrevealed
reality, stands in opposition to the current philosophic conception of
scientific knowledge.</span>”<span lang="EN-US">
(page 70)<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";"> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Remarks<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">I
found the similarity in problems detecting way of Polanyi and Chomsky (see the
previous post). Polanyi said as follows:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">“<span lang="EN-US">To see a problem that will lead to a great discovery is not just to
see something hidden, but to see something of which the rest of humanity cannot
have even an inkling. </span>“<span lang="EN-US"> (page 22)<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Polanyi
also taught us a hint to come up with the great discoveries. Indwelling or
interiorizing is the key. Perhaps this weekly reading would lead to the
interiorization. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">The
concept of tacit knowledge always encourages me when I face difficulty in
explaining my personal belief. I totally agree with the concept that Polanyi
brought about and wish to cherish my personal belief and principle.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Reference: <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Michael
Polanyi, </span><span lang="EN-US">“</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">The Tacit Dimension</span><span lang="EN-US">”</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">,
University of Chicago Press, Reissue edition,
2009/05<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<!--EndFragment--></div>
Taejunhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08721720381259486607noreply@blogger.com7tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-30344066.post-38191644877538558712012-06-24T23:31:00.002+09:002012-06-24T23:34:51.733+09:00The Minimalist Program<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<span lang="EN-US" style="background-color: white; font-family: 'ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3';">Everyone
speaks language. If people do not have a speech impediment, they acquire their
native languages without any difficulties, regardless of his or her parents</span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3';">’<span lang="EN-US"> mother tongue. This
fact implies that human beings have certain inborn and general abilities of
acquiring any languages. The long-standing question was how we explain the
process. Noam Chomsky, a MIT linguist, came up with the concept of how our
language processing works.</span></span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3';">Language faculty is composed of cognitive
system and performance system<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3';">Chomsky
argues that language faculty is composed of cognitive system and performance
system. Cognitive system stores information, and performance system accesses to
information and uses it. Performance system and cognitive system interact
through two interfaces: the two systems interact each other by using phonetic
form (utterance) of language through </span><span style="font-family: 'ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3';">“<span lang="EN-US">articulatory perceptual system</span>”<span lang="EN-US">, and using
logical form (meaning) through </span>“<span lang="EN-US">conceptual intentional
system</span>”<span lang="EN-US">. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3';">According
to Chomsky, performance system does not vary in the manner of the cognitive
system, i.e. the system is universal and does not change by the selection of
languages. Thus, his study mainly focuses on the cognitive system. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3';">Chomsky
says that cognitive system consists of a </span><span lang="EN-US">“</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3';">computational system</span><span lang="EN-US">”</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3';">
and a </span><span lang="EN-US">“</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3';">lexicon</span><span lang="EN-US">”</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3';">. The computational system
generates form of structural description, i.e. sound (phonetic form) and meaning
(logical form) of an object. The lexicon is a repository of all properties of
particular lexical items, specifying the elements that the computational system
selects and integrates to form linquistic expressions, i.e. phonetic form and
logical form. (see the diagram below)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiADa2fMatzCosSHcwD17lu34kug7w1vsaJMG1Isz5kp2X0rvuwUKWxqjWP6OP2GBTjGSNXqvRjFIo_gxxQ7WKnZms1C6lBNli_gXc2l8cqc2-NgiEXoA2UUiWM3S1b8a6CgbfH/s1600/26.minimalist+program.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="249" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiADa2fMatzCosSHcwD17lu34kug7w1vsaJMG1Isz5kp2X0rvuwUKWxqjWP6OP2GBTjGSNXqvRjFIo_gxxQ7WKnZms1C6lBNli_gXc2l8cqc2-NgiEXoA2UUiWM3S1b8a6CgbfH/s320/26.minimalist+program.png" width="320" /></a></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: 'ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3';"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3';">In
Chomsky</span><span style="font-family: 'ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3';">’<span lang="EN-US">s
terminology, acquiring a language is equivalent to acquiring </span></span><span lang="EN-US">“</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3';">generative
grammar</span><span lang="EN-US">”</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3';">. When one acquire languages, one is able
to conduct infinitive use of finite means, i.e. once we acquire languages, the
generative grammar allows us to </span><span lang="EN-US">“</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3';">generate</span><span lang="EN-US">”</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3';">
any sentences regardless of our experiences and thus to rule out the
ungrammatical language expressions. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3';">Universal Grammar, P&P model, and the
Minimalist Program<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3';">According
to Chomsky, there is universal grammar (UG) by which we acquire any languages.
UG is something common to all human speeches and an invariant system of human
speech principles. The UG hypothesis explains why all human beings can acquire
their native languages regardless of their parents</span><span style="font-family: 'ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3';">’<span lang="EN-US"> mother tongue. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3';">Using
UG, Chomsky proposed Principles & Parameters (P&P) model, which argues
that our languages are composed of very simple principles (UG) and parameters,
and the choice of parameters determines the differences among various
languages. Let us quote what he says to understand it more deeply: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: 'ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3';">“<span lang="EN-US">Language acquisition is interpreted as the process of fixing the
parameters of the initial state in one of the permissible ways (</span>“<span lang="EN-US">Minimalist Program</span>”<span lang="EN-US">, page 6). </span>…<span lang="EN-US"> A language is not, then, a system of rules, but a set of
specifications for parameters in an invariant system of principles of UG (page
129).</span>”<span lang="EN-US"> <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3';">The
concept of relationship between UG and language acquisition has evolved as
Chomsky develops his theory, and by the end of 20th century, he proposed the
idea of </span><span style="font-family: 'ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3';">“<span lang="EN-US">the
Minimalist Program</span>”<span lang="EN-US">. In the minimalist program, he
argues that derivation (computation) and representation of languages are
subject to a certain form of </span>“<span lang="EN-US">least effort (minimalist
approach)</span>”<span lang="EN-US"> condition and are required to be minimal in
a fair well-defined sense. That is, the computation and representation process
of human speech generally takes most efficient way, ruling out redundancy in
language processing. Chomsky calls it </span>“<span lang="EN-US">the most
economical convergent derivation (page 201)</span>”<span lang="EN-US">. According to the minimalist program approach,
lexicon of cognitive system specifies the information that is optimal and
non-redundant. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3';">Remarks<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3';">This
was the first time for me to read an orthodox linguistics book, and this book
is so far the most challenging book among what I have read since this year
(actually, this book could be more readable one). As always, it is the greatest
pleasure to tackle a new concept and understand it, thus acquiring the new
perspective to see the world. (I hope I understand his theory correctly in
general sense</span><span lang="EN-US">…</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3';">) By introducing the concept of UG,
P&P model and the minimalist program, Chomsky made it far clear to
understand the variety of human languages. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3';">I also
would like to quote what Chomsky noted in question shaping. The remark is full
of insights. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">“</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3';">Typically, when questions are more sharply
formulated, it is learned that even elementary phenomena had escaped notice,
and that intuitive accounts that seemed simple and persuasive are entirely
inadequate. If we are satisfied that an apple falls to the ground because that
is its natural place, there will be no serious science of mechanics. The same
is true if one is satisfied with traditional rules for forming questions, or
with the lexical entries in the most elaborate dictionaries, none of which come
close to describing simple properties of these linguistic objects. </span><span lang="EN-US">“</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3';"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3';">Reference</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3';"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3';">Noam
Chomsky, </span><span lang="EN-US">“</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3';">The Minimalist Program</span><span lang="EN-US">”</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3';">,
The MIT Press, 1995/9/28<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
</div>Taejunhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08721720381259486607noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-30344066.post-24220869881960270112012-06-02T15:53:00.001+09:002012-06-02T15:53:34.013+09:00The Science of the Artificial<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Harbert
Simon, a professor of computer science and psychology as well as the 1978 Nobel
laureate in Economics, pursued the “artificial science”, or knowledge about
artificial objects and phenomena. According to him, artificial things have the
following characteristics which distinguish themselves from natural:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">-
Artificial things are synthesized (though not always or usually with full
forethought) by human beings<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">-
Artificial things may imitate appearances in natural things while lacking in
one or many respects, the reality of the latter<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">- Artificial
things can be characterized in terms of functions, goals, adaptation<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">-
Artificial things are often discussed, particularly when they are being
designed, in terms of imperatives as well as descriptives<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Human being as a simple system<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Simon
began with human beings. After studying aspects of imperfect problem solving
activities of human beings and the other artifacts (i.e. computers), he claimed
that human beings are quite simple. He said, “The apparent complexity of our
behavior over time is largely a reflection of the complexity of the environment
in which we find ourselves.” (page 53) What makes our behaviors complex is
information of the situations full of variety. If we use metaphor to describe
the problem solving activities of human beings, we can say as follows: human
being is like a simple function having variables in it, and information is
input to the variables. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">There
are some facts showing the very limited ability of human being. According to a
study of Dansereau and Gregg, the times required for elementary arithmetic
operations and for fixation of intermediate results account for only part of
the total time for performing mental multiplications of four digits by two.
Much of the remaining time appears to be devoted to retrieving numbers from the
memory where they have been fixated. The fact suggests that the system of human
beings is basically serial in its operation, i.e. we can solve the problems
only through “one-by-one” style.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">This
simplicity of human being is counter-intuitive. However, Simon says to this
notion that “Only human pride argues that the apparent intricacies of our path
stem from a quite different source than the intricacy of the ant’s path.” <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Science of designing artificial<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Based
on the studies of human beings’ behavior, Simon turns to the design of
artificial. Although not comprehensive, he proposes the following evaluation
criteria of artificial design:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">1)
Theory of evaluation: the artifacts act to maximize utility, or they could make
decision based on statistic<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">2)
Computational methods: (a) algorithms for choosing optimal alternatives such as
linear programming computations, control theory, dynamic programming; (b)
algorithms and heuristics for choosing satisfactory alternatives<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">3) The
formal logic of design: imperative and declarative logics<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">4) The
search for alternatives: (a) heuristic search; (b) allocation of resources for
search<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">5)
Theory of structure and design organization<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">6)
Representation of design problems (the definition of the problems)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Curriculum for social design<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">He
also discusses about the aspects we need to pay attention in social planning: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">1)
bounded rationality: the meaning of rationality can be quite complex if we
think about the rationality in complex situations<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">2)
Data for planning: the social system needs methods of forecasting, the use of
prediction and feedback in control<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">3)
Identifying the client: we need to think about for whom we create the system<br />
4) Organizations in social design: an important goal of the design is to
fashion and change social organization in general and individual organizations
in particular<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">5)
Time and space horizons<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">6)
Designing without final goals: it means the system needs to be designed as an
evolving system, full of flexibility for future uncertainties<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Remarks<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">It is
outstanding to think about the system and human being in this way at the time
when this book was published. The hardest task is to deny the complexity of
human behaviors, and the out-of-the-box thinking enabled the author to come up
with his idea. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Although
the studies in this book seem very scattered to me, the study of unknown fields
always tends to be like that, through out the history of the progress of
theories: when the first thesis appears, it takes very complex methodology to
solve problems, but as the theory evolves, there will be more formalized, simple
and beautiful methodology. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Reference<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Harbert
A. Simon, “The Science of the Artificial” (3rd edition), The MIT Press, 1996/10/1)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<!--EndFragment--></div>Taejunhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08721720381259486607noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-30344066.post-14441309610054132232012-05-23T13:52:00.000+09:002012-05-23T13:52:55.051+09:00The Rise of the Network Society<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">The
information technology revolution is different from the preceding technological
revolutions in that it brought about the network in which information in itself
creates information through the continuous feedback loop, whereas all other
technological revolutions were physical. In other words, all preceding
revolutions provided extension of the human body, while IT revolution is
creating extension of the human brain. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Manuel
Castells, a philosopher, authored a thick book “The Rise of the Network
Society” (a first volume of three books), in 1996, to describe the typical phenomena
in “Information Age”. Although Castells wrote this book more than 15 years ago
and some parts seem to be outdated or too familiar to us, we can still learn
from the way he sees the network society. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Network society<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Let’s
see the definition of network first. According to him, a network is a set of
interconnected nodes. A node is the point a t which a curve intersects it self.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">The
network owes much to the IT revolution and plays central role in the Information
Age. The network society came after the information technology advancement.
Internet is the main stage of this society, in which people interact each other
with unprecedented frequency, creating the vast amount of communication. The
idea of network society is quite common to the people living now, as we usually
use facebook, twitter, etc for our daily communication.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">As we
always see, the dominant functions and processes in the Information Age are
increasingly organized around networks. In capitalism society, capital flows
into where the value is created. That means, the capital is invested globally
from and to these networks.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Its impact<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">The
author argued that the information technology and the rise of network society will
bring about the globalization and change in culture, lifestyles and
enterprises. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Globalization
is exactly what we see now its somewhat brutal process. Culture is made up of
communication process, and if we change the process, it is natural that culture
changes as well. Many are very keen on joblessness especially among the youth,
and some blame technological advancement as the culprit (actually, same thing
happened in the preceding technological revolutions, but in the long run there
will be more job creations to adopt to the change. The point is how to overcome
the turbulence during the transition). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Features of information technology
paradigm<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Why
network society matters much to us and why it emerged now? It’s because of the
information technology paradigm. Castells argues that there are five key
features that constitute the heart of the information technology paradigm (from
page 70) :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">1.
Information as its raw material. Technologies act on information, not just
information to act on technology. “What characterizes the current technological
revolution is not the centrality of knowledge and information, but the
application of such knowledge and information to knowledge generation and
information processing/communication devices, in a cumulative feedback loop
between innovation and the uses of innovation.”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">2.
Pervasiveness of effects. The new technological medium shapes all processes of
our individual and collective existence, because information is the integral
part of human activity.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">3.
Networking logic. When networks diffuse, their growth becomes exponential, as
the benefits of being in the network grow exponentially, because of the greater
number of connections, and the cost grows in a liner pattern. According to
Robert Metcalfe (1973), the value of a network (V) increases as the square of
the number of nodes (n) in the net: V = n^(n-1). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">4.
Flexibility. As the network is not hierarchically structured, not only
processes are reversible, but also organizations and institutions can be
modified, and even fundamentally altered, by rearranging their components
without destroying the entire structure. What is distinctive to the
configuration of the new technological paradigm is its ability to reconfigure,
a decisive feature in a society characterized by constant change and
organizational fluidity. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">5.
Convergence of specific technologies into a highly integrated system. One
element in the technological system cannot exist without the other, and the
borders among specific devices are diminishing. Micro-electronics,
telecommunications, opto-electronics, and computers are all now integrated into
information systems. Some business distinction between chip makers and software
writers will exist for sometime, but not for long. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Remarks<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">The
five features of information paradigm are still useful to explain what is going
on now and predict what will come next. Especially, the idea of convergence of
specific technologies is informative to me, making me think of the world in
which borders are diminishing. The border is fading out in every field, not
limited to the specific information devices. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Reference<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Manuel
Castells, “The Rise of the Network Society: The Information Age: Economy,
Society, and Culture Volume I (Information Age Series)” 2nd Edition with a New
Preface, Wiley-Blackwell, 2009/8/25<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<!--EndFragment--></div>Taejunhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08721720381259486607noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-30344066.post-43112659062914669332012-05-16T00:25:00.000+09:002012-05-16T00:25:03.004+09:00Self representation<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
Even though you are a businessperson working for somebody, that alone would not mean that you cannot build the trust with the other people. However, if your're depending heavily on your company, you'll never be able to. <div>
<br /></div>
<div>
The reason is clear: if you're heavily depending on your company, you cannot represent yourself. You should be yourself to build the trust with other people. Remember that you cannot fool the others - they know you more than you do.<br /><div>
<br /></div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
<br /><div>
<br /></div>
</div>
</div>
</div>Taejunhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08721720381259486607noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-30344066.post-25587528300400108432012-05-12T12:54:00.001+09:002012-05-12T12:54:36.845+09:00Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Now
the majority of the world</span><span style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">’<span lang="EN-US">s countries either have a market economy or are trying to construct
one. However, people could hardly imagine it in 1940s when Marxism was
everywhere. In 1940s, 40% of the world population lived under socialism rule.
Not to mention USSR, even in US, there was the Marxism fever. That was the
state of the world when Joseph A. Schumpeter wrote his book </span>“<span lang="EN-US">Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy</span>”<span lang="EN-US">. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Having
spent 50 pages for evaluating Marxism (because part of his intention of writing
this book was to let Marxists read it), in the part </span><span lang="EN-US">“</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Can Capitalism Survive?</span><span lang="EN-US">”</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">,
Schumpeter said that it cannot. That, however, did not mean that the world
would undergo the changes that Marx described. Schumpeter specified strength and
the essence of Capitalism, then specified the change agents of the society, and
then foresaw how the world would evolve eventually. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Strength of Capitalism<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Schumpeter
pointed out the strength of market-based system, saying that it is the most
effective way to allocate wealth and talent. He argued that Capitalism</span><span lang="EN-US">’</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">s
wealth allocation system is different from any preceding systems in that the
commercial and industrial bourgeoisie rose solely by their business success. He
argued that the competition and wealth allocation in capitalism societies are
fair compared with the other societies and that the fortune entrepreneurs may
get would be the driving force to bring about social progress. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">“</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">That social arrangement is, or at all
events was, singularly effective. In part it appeals to, and in part It
creates, a schema of motives that is unsurpassed in simplicity and force. The
promises of wealth and the threats of destitution that it holds out, it redeems
with ruthless promptitude.</span><span style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";"> </span><span lang="EN-US">…</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">.
They are not proffered at random; yet there is a sufficiently enticing
admixture of chance: the game is not like roulete, it is more like poker. They
are addressed to ability, energy and supernormal capacity for work; but if
there were a way of measuring either that ability in general or the personal
achievement that goes into any particular success, the premiums actually paid
out would probably not be found proportional to either. Spectacular prizes much
greater than would have been necessary to call for the the particular effort
are thrown to a small minority of winners, thus propelling much more
efficaciously than a more equal and more </span><span lang="EN-US">‘</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">just</span><span lang="EN-US">’</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";"> distribution would, the
activity of that large majority of businessmen who receive in return very
modest compensation or nothing or less than nothing, and yet do their utmost
because they have the big prizes before their eyes and overrate their chances
of doing equally well. Similarly, the threats are addressed to imcompetance.
But though the incompetent men and the obsolete methods are in fact eliminated,
sometimes very promptly, sometimes with a lag, failure also threatens or
actually overtakes many an able man, thus whipping up <i>everyone, </i>again much more efficaciously than a more equal and more </span><span lang="EN-US">‘</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">just</span><span lang="EN-US">’</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">
system of penalties would. Finally, both business success and business failure
are ideally precise. Neither can be talked away. </span><span lang="EN-US">”</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";"> (page 73)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">I don</span><span lang="EN-US">’</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">t
think his statement is totally fair, since the talent and competence of
children are hugely depending upon where they</span><span lang="EN-US">’</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">re born, and the fact that even
able men/women are facing some risk would not justify the inequality at the
original state. That said, I should say that that point cannot be the
fundamental criticism toward his argument. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Essence of Capitalism<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Schumpeter
pointed out that the rate of increase in output did not decrease from the
nineties, although there had been huge concentrations of mass-production. If
Marx were right, there should be the rising gap between the social system and
the productivity, the change force to topple down Capitalism. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Then
what is the essence of Capitalism? Schumpeter introduced the popular concept of
</span><span lang="EN-US">“</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Creative Destruction</span><span lang="EN-US">”</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">,
saying that it is the essence and driving force of Capitalism. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">“</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">The opening up of new markets, foreign or
domestic, and the organizational development from the craft shop and factory to
such concerns as U.S. Steel illustrate the same process of industrial mutation </span><span lang="EN-US">–</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">
if I may use that biological term </span><span lang="EN-US">–</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";"> that incessantly
revolutionizes the economic structure from within, incessantly destroying the
old one, incessantly creating a new one. This process of Creative Destruction
is the essential fact about capitalism. It is what capitalism consists in and
what every capitalist concern has got to live in. </span><span lang="EN-US">“</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";"> (page 83)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">He
treated Capitalism as the organic and evolutionally process, rather than the
stationary one. This view implies that we need time to evaluate the true
elements of change agents of the society and that we need take synthetic
approaches to analyze social systems. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">“</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">First, since we are dealing with a process
whose every element takes considerable time in revealing its true features and
ultimate effects, there is no point in appraising the performance of that
process ex visu of a given point of time; we must judge its performance over
time, as it unfolds through decades or centuries. </span><span lang="EN-US">…</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";"> Second, since we are dealing
with an organic process, analysis of what happens in any particular part of it </span><span lang="EN-US">–</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">
say, in an individual concern or industry </span><span lang="EN-US">–</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";"> may indeed clarify details of
mechanism but is inconclusive beyond that.</span><span lang="EN-US">”</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";"> (page 83)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Ironically,
the methodology and perspective he used seem to be quite similar to Marx and
Hegel </span><span lang="EN-US">–</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";"> the dialectic way of thinking. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Intellectuals as the change agents<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Schumpeter
thought that intellectuals have been the change agents of all the societies,
and in Capitalism society they would take the enormous role to decompose the
system. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">According
to him, intellectuals are people who wield the power of the spoken and the
written word, and one of the touches that distinguish them from other people
who do the same is the absence of direct responsibility for practical affairs. Historically,
intellectuals such as scientists and philosophers have taken role to stimulate,
energize, verbalize and organize people and their thought. One particular
aspect of their role is to illustrate principle of social change (page 153).
(In fact, Marx also said that </span><span lang="EN-US">“</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">through the history, no ignorance
had changed the world</span><span lang="EN-US">”</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Schumpeter
thought that there would be more intellectuals in 20th century, thanks to technology
advancement (e.g. the cheaper book and newspapers), expansion of the
educational apparatus and particularly of the facilities for higher education, and
the rationalist nature of capitalist civilization, which gives more
opportunities to intellectuals. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">All
these factors would contribute to the increase of intellectuals and thus white
collar workers. However, the society at that time would not be able to provide
enough jobs for those white workers due to its mass-manufacturing based
economy. Thus the situation creates unsatisfactory conditions of employment and
eventually leads to the change of the society (page 152). Schumpeter said: </span><span lang="EN-US">“</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">In
that sense, Marx</span><span lang="EN-US">’</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">s vision was right. We can also agree with
him in linking the particular social transformation that goes on under our eyes
with an economic process as its prime mover. What our analysis, if correct,
disproves is after all of secondary importance, however essential the role may
be which it plays in the socialist credo.</span><span lang="EN-US">”</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";"> He called the next society </span><span lang="EN-US">“</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Socialism</span><span lang="EN-US">”</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">
and argued that the society should be compatible with democracy.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Now we
live in the world that Schumpeter predicted. There had been no significant
revolution to topple down Capitalism, and instead, Socialism countries were
decomposed and now are aiming to construct market-based economy. Mass
manufacturing-based economy is almost vanished in developed countries, moving most
of its base to the emerging countries. Industries in advanced economies are now
more knowledge intensive, where intellectuals create far more values than the
precedent period. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Remarks<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">I</span><span lang="EN-US">’</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">m
very curious about why the great intelligence can predict the future, although
we all face the limitation of time that flesh is heir to. It is easy to
describe the current situation, but it</span><span lang="EN-US">’</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">s far more difficult to see the
future through the ongoing reality. Some smart people can forecast what will
happen in 10 years, but only those with great intelligence can foresee the big
change in the coming 100 years. I guess if Marx were living in early 20th
century, he might have written the same kind of book as that of Schumpeter. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">The
implication to me is as follows: facts change as time goes on, but methodologies
don</span><span lang="EN-US">’</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">t. The great thinkers had their own methodologies
to see the world, by which they not only just describe the situation but also
find out essence, implications and the state of the future within it. Most of
the books I introduced in this blog were full of those great methodologies.
That is why I read classics and am trying to learn what they thought, instead
of just what they said (that can be done by Wikipedia).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Reference<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Joseph
A. Schumpeter, </span><span lang="EN-US">“</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy</span><span lang="EN-US">”</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3";">
(Third Edition, published in 1950), </span><span lang="EN-US" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: Arial;">Harper
Perennial Modern Classics (2008/11/4)</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--EndFragment--></div>Taejunhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08721720381259486607noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-30344066.post-67735889154663452262012-05-11T11:27:00.000+09:002012-05-11T14:00:02.019+09:00Interview with a banking Yokai<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span lang="EN-US" style="color: #222222; font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3"; font-size: 10pt;">I had an opportunity to have a long interview (3 hours) with an ex-CEO of the largest investment banks in Europe. I believe that I</span><span style="color: #222222; font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3"; font-size: 10pt;">’<span lang="EN-US">m good at evaluating someone, but this time it was very difficult </span>–<span lang="EN-US"> I couldn</span>’<span lang="EN-US">t fathom what he thinks at the very depth of his mind. That said, his remark was full of implication and worth sharing:</span></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #222222; font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3"; font-size: 10pt;">About the essence of finance</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #222222; font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3"; font-size: 10.5pt;"></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="color: #222222; font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3"; font-size: 10pt;">It</span><span style="color: #222222; font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3"; font-size: 10pt;">’<span lang="EN-US">s not the paradise any more. If you have money, you have to have some system to deal with it. It's all about the system to gather money from where money in in excess and allocate it to in demand. Very simple.</span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #222222; font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3"; font-size: 10.5pt;"></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #222222; font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3"; font-size: 10pt;">About risk</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #222222; font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3"; font-size: 10.5pt;"></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="color: #222222; font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3"; font-size: 10pt;">His biggest business principle was to evaluate risk, especially downside risk. Understand how much we can lose at the worst case, and then if the opportunity is still good enough given the risk, go for it. The biggest risk we will face in the coming 5 years is recession and deflation in Europe and US.</span><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #222222; font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3"; font-size: 10.5pt;"></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="color: #222222; font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3"; font-size: 10pt;"> We should aware that when everyone is shouting about risk, the risk is very small; instead, when no one is talking about risk, it</span><span style="color: #222222; font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3"; font-size: 10pt;">’<span lang="EN-US">s largest. Thus, be very careful when people are like a herd of sheeps. Be cautious when everyone in your company says the same thing.</span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #222222; font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3"; font-size: 10.5pt;"></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #222222; font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3"; font-size: 10pt;">About decision making</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #222222; font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3"; font-size: 10.5pt;"></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="color: #222222; font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3"; font-size: 10pt;">The biggest role of CEO is to make decisions. In decision-making, timing is more important than accuracy. People tend to overlook the importance of choosing the right timing.</span><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #222222; font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3"; font-size: 10.5pt;"></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="color: #222222; font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3"; font-size: 10pt;"> The best way to be good at making decisions is to do trading, because in trading you would make many wrong decisions and would correct them. If you do not correct your past decision at the right timing, you would lose money. That experience is vital.</span><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #222222; font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3"; font-size: 10.5pt;"></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #222222; font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3"; font-size: 10pt;">About market</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #222222; font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3"; font-size: 10.5pt;"></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="color: #222222; font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3"; font-size: 10pt;">The market is all about human response, so you need to understand what the human being is in the first place. We don</span><span style="color: #222222; font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3"; font-size: 10pt;">’<span lang="EN-US">t have a perfect scheme to understand human beings, but you have to know it.</span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #222222; font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3"; font-size: 10.5pt;"></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #222222; font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3"; font-size: 10pt;">On technological advancement</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #222222; font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3"; font-size: 10.5pt;"></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="color: #222222; font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3"; font-size: 10pt;">For instance, what 3D printer means to us is that we would need less labor in the near future, especially the blue collar labors. These technology advancements would hinder the growth of developing countries.</span><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #222222; font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3"; font-size: 10.5pt;"></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="color: #222222; font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3"; font-size: 10pt;"> Less labor demands will also come to banking business. Banks will eventually shed their employees to keep their competence, especially in retail banking, which in theory can 100% go without labor forces.</span><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #222222; font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3"; font-size: 10.5pt;"></span></div>
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</div>Taejunhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08721720381259486607noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-30344066.post-31246325540160426232012-05-05T21:57:00.001+09:002012-05-05T22:00:00.334+09:00Discipline and Punish<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<span style="font-family: 'ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3';">Until
18th century, torturing criminal was grisly public spectacle even in developed
countries. For instance, a man who attempted to the king was drawn and
quartered in a public execution.</span><br />
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3';">The
form of punishment experienced notable changes from 18th to 19th century in
Europe. First, the punishment became no longer public spectacle and the
executioners tried to abbreviate pain of criminals (in a case, criminals are
injected with tranquilizers). The change implies a whole new morality
concerning the act of punishment. Second, the leniency was accompanied by the
change of objectives in punishment. The punishment began to be designed to
strike the soul rather than the body. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3';">It is
easy to explain the change simply as the expansion of humanity or the development
of the human sciences, but that approach faces risk in missing the important
perspectives, argued Michel Foucault, a French philosopher, known as the
representative structuralism thinker. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3';">In his
book, “Discipline and Punish”, he analyzed the history of the modern spirit and
of a new power to judge, through the study of history of punishments and
prisons. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3';">Four rules in studying history of
punishment<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3';">Foucault
suggested four general rules in studying the history of punishments to see it
from much broader perspective, such that we can reach to the profound
understanding of the social change. I believe the methodology is applicable to
all the related studies:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3';">First,
he regarded punishment as a complex social function. He did not concentrate on the
study of the punitive mechanisms on their repressive effects alone, but
situated them in a whole series of their possible positive effects, even if
these seem marginal at first sight.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3';">Second,
he regarded punishment as a political tactics. He analyzed punitive methods not
simply as consequences of legislation, but as techniques possessing their own
specificity in the more general field of other ways of exercising power. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3';">Third,
he made the “technology of power” the very principle both of the humanization
of the penal system and of the knowledge of man. He thought the technology of
power is behind both the history of penal law and the history of human
sciences. He said:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3';">“We
should admit rather that power produces knowledge; that power and knowledge
directly imply one another; that there is no power relation without the
correlative constitution of a field of knowledge, nor any knowledge that does
not presuppose and constitute at the same time power relations. These
‘power-knowledge relations’ are to be analyzed, therefore, not on the basis of
a subject of knowledge who is or is not free in relation to the power system,
but, on the contrary, the subject who knows, the objects to be known and the
modalities of knowledge must be regarded as so many effects of these fundamental
implications of power-knowledge and their historical transformations.” (page
27-28)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3';">Fourth,
he studied the metamorphosis of punitive methods on the basis of a political
technology of the body which might be read a common history of power relations
and object relations. In that way, he regarded the change of penal leniency as
one of the power techniques. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3';">Power shift behind the change in
punishments<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3';">Foucault
thought that the public execution is to be understood not only as a judicial
but also as a political ritual; more precisely, he thought that the execution
is the representation of power, saying: “The reform of criminal law must be
read as a strategy for the rearrangement of the power to punish. … The new
juridical theory of penalty corresponds in fact to a new ‘political economy’ of
the power to punish.” <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3';">The
cruel (and costly) tortures reflected the absolute power of monarchy at that
time. The style of tortures changed, essentially because of the power shift
from monarchs to the bourgeoisie. After the Revolution, new power needed to
constitute a new economy and a new technology of the power to punish, and the
rise of the social contract theory can be understood through this context. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3';">The
penalty changed accordingly. After the Revolution, the main penalty became
imprisonment, i.e. the penalty to deprive the criminals of freedom, which is
the central value in the Revolution. The characteristics of the penalty
underwent the following changes:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3';">- Unarbitrary
application and public acceptance of rules<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3';">- More
focus on incentivizing people not to commit crimes<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3';">-
Designed to emphasize rules rather than sovereign powers<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3';">He
summarizes his idea as follows:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3';">“In
the late eighteenth century, one is confronted by three ways of organizing the
power to punish. The first is the one that was still functioning and which was
based on the old monarchical law. The other two both refer to a preventive,
utilitarian, corrective conception of a right to punish that belongs to society
as a whole; but they are very different from one another at the level of the
mechanisms they envisage. Broadly speaking, one might say that, in monarchical
law, punishment is a ceremonial of sovereignty; it uses the ritual marks of the
vengeance (retaliation) that it applies to the body of the condemned man; and
it deploys before the eyes of the spectators an effect of terror as intense as
it is discontinuous, irregular and always above its own laws, the physical
presence of the sovereign and of his power. The reforming jurists, on the other
hand, saw punishment as a procedure for requalifying individuals as subjects,
as juridical subjects; it uses not marks, but signs, coded sets of
representations, which would be given the most rapid circulation and the most
general acceptance possible by citizens witnessing the scene of punishment. “
(P130)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3';">Individualism and the rise of discipline<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3';">The
next thing Foucault analyzed is the discipline. He pointed out the discipline
experienced major change at the same when punishments became lenient. Discipline
is like a substructure of the social body. While the upper structure is
established by politicians and philosophers, disciplines are often made by
soldiers in army, teachers in schools, doctors in hospitals, etc. Foucault
meticulously looked into how discipline worked to people, by saying that
discipline is political anatomy of detail, quoting Marshal de Saxe: “Although
those who concern themselves with details are regarded as folk of limited
intelligence, it seems to me that this part is essential, because it is the
foundation, and it is impossible to erect any building or establish any method
without understanding its principles.”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3';">Discipline
is composed of three factors. The first is observation - especially the
apparatus that makes it possible to see everything constantly. The ultimate
form of observation apparatus is that of panopticons. The second is a small
penal mechanism, the informal rule which is intrinsic to the group and requires
no judicial system; the penal mechanism works to correct individuals’ behavior.
The third is examination, which combines the techniques of observation and the
group’s internal rules. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3';">Foucault
argued that the discipline marked the moment when the political individualism
takes place. The essence of discipline is that it “makes” individuals; it is
the specific technique of a power that regards individuals both as objects and
as instruments of its exercise. As the society put much importance of
individuals, power becomes more anonymous and more functional, those on whom
discipline is exercised tend to be more strongly individualized. As discipline
worked to reduce the “gap” from the ideal status, after the rise of discipline,
the child, the patient, the madman and the delinquent became more
individualized than the adult, the healthy man, the normal and the
non-delinquent man.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3';">The birth of prison<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3';">Although
prisons existed before the modern civil revolution, the penalty of detention (deprivation
of liberty) was a new thing, Foucault argued. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3';">As
Baltard said, prisons are “complete and austere institutions”; prisons are the
perfect disciplinary institutions in that it assumes responsibility of all
aspects of the individuals, his physical training, his aptitude to work, his
everyday conduct, his moral attitude, his state of mind, etc. (page 235) The
penitentiary technique and the delinquent of prisons are a technological
ensemble that forms and fragments the object to which it applies its
instruments. In that sense, the prison is the place where the power to punish
organizes a field of objectivity in which punishment will be able to function
open as treatment and the sentence will be inscribed among the discourses of
knowledge. Foucault thought that the characteristics of prisons are the reason
why justice adopted a prison.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3';">Remarks<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3';">This
is an outstanding book. Foucault tells us how to look through the things. As
Marx once said a good reflects everything of capitalism society, discipline and
punishment played the same role, explaining social changes. If we just look at
phenomena, we may miss the larger change (power shift in his terminology) that
fundamentally drives all the changes. As Foucault showed in this book, the
importance thing is to (1) look through details of the phenomena and (2) relate
the phenomena to the other social changes. This analysis requires extensive
knowledge in many fields, and this reminds us of learning various topics.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3';">Reference:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'ヒラギノ角ゴ ProN W3';">Michel
Foucault, “Discipline & Punish: The Birth of the Prison”, Vintage, 1995<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
</div>Taejunhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08721720381259486607noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-30344066.post-7293538412009551582012-04-30T00:55:00.003+09:002012-04-30T00:55:21.471+09:00Imagined Communities<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<div class="MsoNoteLevel1CxSpFirst">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ Pro W3";">Even though the 21st century is marking
significant decline in barriers around the world, nation-ness is still the most
universally legitimate value in the political life of our time. To many people, nationalism is more important
than the other ideologies such as communism, as we have seen the war between
socialist countries, which all should be ally nations in theory. Over the past two centuries, hundreds of
millions of people died for the nation, the seemingly mystic conception.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoteLevel1CxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoteLevel1CxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: 0cm;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ Pro W3";">Although political power of nationalism is quite strong, it’s
philosophically notably poor and even incoherent; nationalism has no Hobbesses,
Tocquevilles, Marxes, or Webbers. Some call nationalism the pathology of modern
developmental history. In 1983, when nationalism had much intensive influence
to the society, Benedict Anderson wrote “Imagined Communities” and defined what
is the nationalism, where it came from and how it evolved. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoteLevel1CxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoteLevel1CxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: 0cm;">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ Pro W3";">Imagined community<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoteLevel1CxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: 0cm;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ Pro W3";">Anderson defined the nation as an “imagined political
community - and imagined as both inherently limited and sovereign”. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoteLevel1CxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoteLevel1CxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: 0cm;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ Pro W3";">It is imagined because the members of even the smallest nation
will never know most of their fellow-members, meet them, or even hear of them,
yet in the minds of each lives the image of their communion. In that sense, all
communities larger than primordial villages of face-to-face contact are the
product of imagination. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoteLevel1CxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoteLevel1CxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: 0cm;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ Pro W3";">The nation is imagined as limited, because even the largest of
them has finite boundaries, beyond which lie other nations. The nationality is
by definition very exclusive one; even the most messianic nationalists do not
dream of a day when all the member of the human race will join their nation. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoteLevel1CxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoteLevel1CxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: 0cm;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ Pro W3";">The nation is imagined as sovereign, because the concept was
born in an age in which Enlightenment and Revolution were destroying the
legitimacy of the divinely-ordained (appointed), hierarchical dynastic realm. In
other words, the sovereignty of nation
came to us to replace the old values, which were demolished after the
Revolution. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoteLevel1CxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoteLevel1CxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: 0cm;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ Pro W3";">The nations are communities, because they are always conceived
as a deep, horizontal comradeship, regardless of the actual inequality and
exploitation that may prevail in each. Ultimately it is this fraternity that
makes it possible for so many people to be willing to die for such limited
imaginings. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoteLevel1CxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoteLevel1CxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoteLevel1CxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: 0cm;">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ Pro W3";">Background of the rise of
imagined community<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoteLevel1CxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: 0cm;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ Pro W3";">The nationalism is the product of culture and modernity.
Before modern era, there were other cultural forces that provided us with
communities; the strongest one is religion and dynastic realm. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoteLevel1CxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoteLevel1CxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: 0cm;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ Pro W3";">The mystic influence of religion was undermined after the
technological advancement such as publishing technology, telescope, etc. The
Revolution toppled down dynasties, considerably weakening the divinity of kings.
After these events, fundamental cultural conceptions lost their axiomatic grip
on human minds. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoteLevel1CxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoteLevel1CxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: 0cm;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ Pro W3";">Printing technology and print-languages also laid the bases
for national consciousness in three ways. First and foremost, they created
unified fields of exchange and communication below Latin and above the spoken
vernaculars. Second, print-capitalism gave a new fixity to language, which
helped to build the image of antiquity so central to the subjective idea of the
nation. Third, print-capitalism created languages-of-power; some printed languages
gained particular power to form the imagined communities. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoteLevel1CxSpMiddle">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoteLevel1CxSpMiddle">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ Pro W3";">Three
stages<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoteLevel1CxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: 0cm;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ Pro W3";">The first nationalism was seen in United States and its
struggle for independence. Anderson claimed that neither economic interest,
Liberalism nor Enlightenment could create the imagined communities. He argued
that cultural factors, notably pilgrim creole functionaries and provincial
creole print-men, played the decisive historic role. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoteLevel1CxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoteLevel1CxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: 0cm;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ Pro W3";">The second wave of nationalism came under the name of official
nationalisms inside Europe. The officinal nationalism – willed merger of nation
and dynastic empire- is born to make the empire attractive by using national
drag, i.e. the official nationalism is used to conceal the discrepancy between
rising national awareness and dynastic realm. Thus, these nationalisms were
historically impossible until after the appearance of popular
linguistic-nationalisms, without which the nationalism did not gained the
popularity allowing the empire to conceal its internal contradiction. The
official nationalism, of course, was Barmecidal one; people in the colonized
countries, e.g. Korean under Japan empire, had no way to achieve the position
to administer Japanese government. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoteLevel1CxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoteLevel1CxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: 0cm;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ Pro W3";">The final wave of nationalism was born after the end of two
World Wars. By 1922, Habsburgs, Hohenzollerns, Romanovs and Ottomans empires
were gone, and after the WWII, even Portuguese empire became the thing of the
past. The legitimate international norm became the nation-state, generating the
last wave of nationalisms mainly in Asia and Africa. Anderson argued that there
are three fundamental reasons behind the rise of the last nationalism: first
and foremost was the enormous increase in physical mobility thanks to the
progress of transportation means, which made people possible to recognize their
region as nation; second was imperial “Russification”, which governs colony
nations through recruiting natives of the nations, the governance style that
allowed people to image their communities better; third was the spread of
modern style education in colonial countries, and the educated people became
the central figures of nationalism movement. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoteLevel1CxSpMiddle">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoteLevel1CxSpMiddle">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoteLevel1CxSpMiddle">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ Pro W3";">Remarks<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNoteLevel1CxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: 0cm;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ Pro W3";">The book allowed me to have a bit more objective viewpoints on
nationalism, which was always around me, raised me, and in some cases plagued
me. The explanation that nationalism has cultural origin like religion and
dynasty helped me to understand why so many people were willing to sacrifice
themselves for the sake of their nations; in some sense, the war for
nationalism may be akin to religious wars that human beings carried out for
many centuries. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoteLevel1CxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoteLevel1CxSpMiddle">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "ヒラギノ角ゴ Pro W3";">That said, something is still
not clear to me. It is perhaps just because nationalism is too close to me –
people tend to specialize what is around them. However, to me, nationalism
seems to be more than what is imagined. The origins of religious group or
dynastic realm may be the product of imagination in the first place (some may
argue that God is just what is imagined, and some say He exists). On the other
hands, some origins of nationalism, namely language, do exist, and there seems
to be difference from other imagined communities. To me nation-ness is imagined
community as well as something down-to-earth.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoteLevel1CxSpMiddle">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoteLevel1CxSpMiddle">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNoteLevel1CxSpMiddle">
<span lang="EN-US">Reference<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNoteLevel1CxSpLast">
<span lang="EN-US">Benedict Anderson, “Imagined Communities” (new edition), First
published by Verso 1983 and this edition published by Verso 2006. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<!--EndFragment--></div>Taejunhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08721720381259486607noreply@blogger.com0